Agricultural progress. Advance in the wages of farm labor. 189

Co-operation.

Effects of the repeal, in 1890, of the exceptional laws of

191

191

1878

Immigration of German unskilled laborers to the United

States has increased with the increasing tide of immi-

gration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

C. The Scandinavians.

Immigration of Scandinavian breadwinners to the United

States highest in 1901-1910

Scandinavians seeking employment in competition with im-

migrants from Southern and Eastern Europe

D. Norway.

192

196

198

Total number of Norwegian immigrants highest in 1901-1910 202

Recent industrial development of Norway

E. Denmark.

Conditions of the Danish peasants greatly improved since

the 80's. Success of agricultural co-operation

Polish migration to Denmark

Progress of the manufacturing industry. Strong organization

of labor.

F. Sweden.

Cause of the decline of emigration from rural districts: Small

Effect of colonial restriction of foreign immigration
Encouragement of immigration of British subjects by the
Canadian and the Australian Governments

Emigration from the British Isles to the United States in

1880-1909 not below normal. Rising tide in 1898-1907. 211

Improvement of living conditions in Great Britain

H. Ireland.

Emigration from Ireland decreasing since 1860

Effects of land reform

Welfare work of the country governments

The co-operative movement

Rise in wages of farm laborers

Improvement of the condition of the people

I. Conclusion: Immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe

could not be replaced by immigration from Northern and

Western Europe

220

CHAPTER IX.

RACE SUICIDE.

General Walker's explanation of the decline in the native birth-

rate: Native stock replaced by immigration

Decline of the birth-rate begins in 1810-1830

A world-wide phenomenon

221

223

224

224

Race suicide universal among social classes not affected by im-
migrant competition

CHAPTER X.

THE STANDARD OF LIVING.

A. Introductory: The subject of inquiry-comparative stand-
ards of unskilled laborers, past and present

B. Congestion in New York City.

Overcrowding and filth in the first half of the past century

Squalid rooms of native American sewing women

The shanty dwellers in the middle of the nineteenth century 231

The Irish and German colonies in the 60's
Improved conditions of the Jewish and Italian districts of

C. Housing Conditions in the Country at Large.

Housing conditions of New England working girls in the 40's. 241

Filthy and unsanitary tenements in Boston in the days of the

Comparison with housing conditions in Ireland

Housing conditions of native white unskilled laborers in

Southern mill towns.

Cause of bad housing conditions economic, not racial .

Responsibility of the landlords

Company houses

PAGE

245

246

Tendency of the Immigration Commission to shift the blame

249

to the tenant

Fallacy of the race classification adopted by the Commission. 250

Rental paid by immigrants as high as, or higher than, that

paid by native wage-earners

Native American wage-earners in small towns with low rents

able to underbid the immigrant workers of large cities

with high rents

250

255

D. Food: Existence of a race standard of living not proved

E. Clothing.

Prices paid by recent immigrants the same as those paid by

native Americans

Race variations insignificant

F. Savings.

Small margin of income left for savings

American wage-earners not injured by the investments of

immigrants in their home countries

CHAPTER XI.

HOME OWNERSHIP.

Point of view of the Immigration Commission not that of the

Irregularity of employment a bar to home ownership

Handicap in labor disputes

Tenancy in Boston in 1790, 1845, 1890, and 1900

Native home owners before the period of the "new immi-

gration"

Home ownership decreasing with the increase of land values
Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe not long enough
in the United States to have acquired homes
Tenancy increasing with the growth of urban population

CHAPTER XII.

EFFECT OF IMMIGRATION ON WAGES.

Difference in wages due to grade of service, not to country of

birth

Native American and Americanized families maintain a higher
standard with the aid of children's earnings

Recently-landed immigrants not engaged at less than the prevail-

PAGE

284

285

Machinery and immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. 289

Defects of wage statistics

292

Wages in urban and rural manufactures: Country competition

of native Americans tends to lower the wages of immigrants 297

Rates of wages not affected by immigration
Increase of wages result of industrial expansion

299

302

What would have been the increase of wages without immigration
from Southern and Eastern Europe?

Wages of older employees kept up by immigration from Southern
and Eastern Europe

CHAPTER XIII.

HOURS OF LABOR.

Hours of labor of native American mill hands in the ante-immi-

Reduction of hours contemporaneous with immigration

Foreign unskilled laborers in the steel industry working shorter

hours than English-speaking skilled and semi-skilled em-

ployees.

Reduction of the working day in the cotton mills

Comparative reduction of hours in New York City and in the
remainder of New York State, 1901-1910.

CHAPTER XIV.

CHILD LABOR.

Child labor in the early days of the factory system

Decrease in the employment of children contemporaneous with in-

Employment of children in the South relatively greater than in

States with a large immigrant population.

Child labor in rural Missouri

PAGE

319

322

CHAPTER XV. .

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.

Conclusions of the Immigration Commission contradicted by its

statistics: Trade union affiliation of Jewish and Italian cloth-

ing workers in New York City above the average for the

wage-earners of the country at large.

Membership in labor unions unaffected by race

Organization among immigrants from Southern and Eastern

Europe as strong as among natives and immigrants from

Northern and Western Europe

Labor unions previous to 1880 ephemeral

Greatest progress coincides with the great tide of immigration of

the last decade

Union membership in New York State rising and falling with

rise and fall of immigration

Trade-unionism stronger in New York than in Kansas with its

decreasing foreign-born population

Trade unions stronger in New York City than in the remainder

of the State .

Strikes increasing with immigration

325

326

327

329

Trade unions mostly confined to skilled crafts. Unskilled laborers

not eligible for membership in craft unions

Discrimination against immigrants .

Possibilities of organization among the unskilled
Home training of immigrants in organization
Effect of machinery upon craft unions

A. Introductory: The period of the greatest immigration at-
tended by a decrease of pauperism and crime

B. Pauperism.

Pauperism less frequent among the new immigration than

353

among the old.

354