evasion of revenue laws that when the cause was removed a low standard of mercantile morality, as far as public financial obligations was concerned, continued to prevail. The embargo (see) and nonintercourse acts at the beginning of the nineteenth century led to a revival of such frauds on an extensive scale; and until the United States Government was able to establish its authority with vigorous measures along the southern Atlantic coast, there were ample opportunities to engage in smuggling operations with Cuba and the West Indies, With the exception of that in the liquor trade, smuggling is now practiced principally by steamship passengers arriving from Europe, and along the northern and southwestern frontiers, more particularly in the importation of live stock. The smuggling of liquor is at the present time notorious, but more efficient methods are gradually being developed to check the practice. In 1910 the Secretary of the Treasury thus described conditions as found by him: "It was not simply that actual tourists were violating the law, but the irregularities of the service on the passenger docks and the example set by those tourists had made the Atlantic steamships open runways for professional smuggling. This whole situation had become demoralized and was deteriorating the entire customs service in New York and more or less everywhere else. Genuine passengers and professional smugglers under the guise of genuine passengers were not only smuggling by means of false declarations, but they were bribing the officers. * Cheating the Government, making false statements, and bribing officials was regarded as a joke. Meanwhile the notoriety of this corruption and its association with people holding good positions in the community did as much as any cause to produce the widespread dishonesty in dealing with the Government and the widespread corruption of the men on whom the Government had to rely." * Such improvements were at this time made in the service that the collection of duties from tourists quickly rose to about four times the amounts collected before the more rigorous administration was initiated.' The distinction which is now made between. "residents" and "nonresidents" has possibly diminished smuggling. This regulation secures a greater freedom to nonresidents in bringing articles of personal use. For a long time there was practically no limit to the quantity of personal effects which an American citizen returning from Europe might bring, and certain ladies were systematically employed by American firms dealing in dresses and millinery to journey between Paris and New York, bringing as personal effects for sale in the United States large quantities of the latest creations of French costumers. As a system this has now, to a large extent, ceased. The United States customs staff employed in dealing with passengers' baggage is of two distinct kinds: (a) The inspectors, who actually examine baggage in search of contraband and dutiable articles which have not been declared, and (b) The appraising staff (see APPRAISER). All the other various regulations governing entry (see CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE) are designed in part to prevent smuggling. Various Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances, 1910, pp. 10-12. measures are adopted to prevent collusion between appraisers and inspectors or between the appraisers and passengers. As an illustration of such precautions it is provided that the inspectors by whom the steamer is met when she enters New York Harbor and who go on board to receive passengers' declarations of articles liable to duty are a distinct corps of officers from those by whom the actual examination of the baggage is conducted. The officers who meet the ship confine their atten- * tion to receiving and examining the declarations. calling attention to obvious omissions or inaccuracies. When the dock is reached these declarations are handed to the officials in charge thereof and are dealt with by another detachment of officers. References: Theobald, William H., Defrauding the Government (True Tales of Smuggling), New York, 1908; McClellan, William Smith, Smuggling in the American Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution, New York, 1912. SNAP FASTENERS AND CLASPS. These articles are fastening devices chiefly for clothing, and are used as a substitute for buttons, hooks and eyes, buckles, and pins. Production. In 1914 production of snap fasteners and clasps, or parts of, amounted to 91,957 great gross, valued at $714,492; and in 1921, to 1,284,196 great gross, valued at $4,098,187. Imports.-The value of imports increased steadily from $11,064 in 1910 to $130,078 in 1914. Imports since 1917 have been as follows; Exports.--Statistics not available. SOAPS. The term "soap" is ordinarily confined to the water-soluble potassium and sodium salts of the fatty acids, although the water-insoluble soaps of lead, magnesium, manganese, and aluminum are used for technical purposes. Pure castile soap is supposed to be made from olive oil and soda lye only, but much of the soap marketed as such is made from other oils. The term "toilet soap" is used to distinguish toilet from household and laundry soaps. As certain soaps are suitable for both toilet and laundry purposes, the term "toilet" is rather vague and has caused considerable litigation. The tariff acts of 1913 and 1922 made a distinction between perfumed and unperfumed toilet soap. Some substance, usually a perfume material, is added to neutralize the odor of the stock or to give the soap a decidedly pleasant smell. Medicinal soaps contain some substance possessing antiseptic | or healing properties. Production. The chief raw materials used in making soap are tallow, grease, and other fats; coconut, cottonseed, soya-bean, palm, corn, peanut, and other vegetable oils; vegetable waxes, resin, perfumes, naphthas, and other materials. Large quantities of caustic soda are used in converting the materials into soap and lesser quan tities of caustic potash in making soft soaps, woolscouring soaps, and shaving soaps. Certain fillers, such as silicate of soda (water glass), borax, and soda ash, are used, also different abrasive materials for scouring soaps. In yellow laundry soap considerable amounts of rosin are consumed. Manufacture involves the action of a caustic alkali, usually caustic soda, on fatty acids or more often on fats or fatty oils. This operation, known as saponification, produces, an alkali salt (soap) and an important by-product, glycerin. Manufacture is by three processes, giving boiled, halfboiled, and cold-process soaps. The names are descriptive of the condition under which the soap is made. Boiled soaps are by far the most important class. Statistics relating to production in the soap industry follow: Exports have shown a steady increase from $3,620,546 in 1910 to $6,291,790 in 1918. The export in 1914 was about 4 per cent of the value of domestic production. The increase has been largely in the export of varieties other than toilet soap. The export of "toilet" or "fancy" soap has been chiefly to the United Kingdom, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Cuba. Prior to 1917 the United Kingdom took between 15,000,000 and 25,000,000 pounds of soap other than toilet soap. Since 1916 Mexico has taken the largest quantity of this variety, importing over 27,000,000 pounds, valued at more than $2,000,000, in 1918. Recent 7.2 statistics follow: 371 533 14, 172 95.0 283 Capital.... $92, 871, 52 Wage earners employed: Average number.. 16,558 Per cent minimum is of maximum number.. 75.8 12.8 $8,087, 937 $1, 132 $150,355, 643 $577 $88,866,786 Annual wage per wage earner. Value of products.. Value added by manufacture. Per cent wages are of added value.. $240, 194, 619 $127,942, 441 20.9 20.7 In 1922 and 1923, laundry soaps to the amount of 67,086,838 pounds, valued at $4,694,406, and 66,498,491 pounds, valued at $4,701,141, respectively, were included in the totals for those years in "All other soaps. Survey A-17. ,, SOD OIL, See OILS, FISH. SODA ASH, CALCINED. See SODIUM COMPOUNDS. SODIUM COMPOUNDS. Hydrosulphites and sulphoxylates. Under this heading are included 1,366,687 136,976 20,546 15 several related chemicals which are energetic reducing agents. They are marketed as gray to white crystalline powders. Their chief use is in the textile trade in certain dyeing, printing, and 20 bleaching operations; to a lesser extent they are employed in the bleaching of soaps, oils, sirups, fibers, and in the preparation of pharmaceuticals. Sodium hydrosulphite, anhydrous, is used in the application of indigo and the different vat dyes. Sulphoxylate of soda formaldehyde is used with or without the addition of other agents for the "discharge of dyes" and for the application of vat dyes in textile printing. The double compound sul 55,334 8,989 246,836 1 SODIUM COMPOUNDS. phoxylate of soda formaldehyde and bisulphite of pounds are made from the sodium hydrosulphite. 90, 169 $1,439, 014 118,535 3, 293, 153 4, 256, 715 3,695, 417 Imports are small compared with the domestic production, the maximum since 1910 being 129,414 pounds, valued at $2,867, in 1916.d Later statistics Jainsoda o azul abos tincodoimpenk Exports. Statistics not available. alapfollow the fitadle faiteubai rashogun or Third of tarang rodeada ei rud ahoe after an Survey A-18. bosilage gode his pounds.value.buty. Rate. Sodium Arsenate is a white solid substance, Year old 8800 19791907 Doe on soluble in water, and very poisonous. It is usually prepared by heating together white arsenic (arseni-ovoquerentiatio ous acid) and nitrate of soda, the product being 1918. purified by crystallization from solution. Its principal use is in insecticides, chiefly lead arsenate. It is also used in dyeing and calico printing. Production is by a few companies only; figures 1922. are not available drew in siffer Imports in 1913 were 1,267,998 pounds, but in 1914 only 228,270, pounds, all from England. Later statistics follow: 2.46 3,616 17, 122 15 14 18 293,060 94,850 i tou73319 9815. 10 w77,256 mi 1,318 i 193 il 14.65 3.00 1 202 13 Tho 96 11 38,455 Exports are not shown separately prior to 1920, in which year they were 20,642,201 pounds, valued at $616,261. Later exports have been as follows: 1918. 1919.. 1920.. 1921.. 1922* 19221. 1922. 14,296 1,266 870 16,515 100 1,879 -1 1923 Exports.Statistics not available. Sodium Bicarbonate or acid sodium carbonate, Survey A-18. Sodium Borate, or Borax Refined, is the most important derivative of boric acid. It comes on the market in two forms-common or prismatic borax, which contains 10 molecules of water of crystallization, and octahedral borax, which contains only 5 molecules. The largest use of borax is in making enamel It is also used in the manufacture coating for cast and wrought iron sanitary and kitchen ware. of glass and soap, for sizing paper, in the soaking and cleaning of hides, in the textile industry as a mordant and for rendering certain cloths fireproof, and as a flux in welding and brazing. Production.-It is now made from colemanite, which is calcined; the calcium borate is separated mechanically from the minerals, and boiled with a solution of soda ash, forming sodium borate and insoluble calcium carbonate. Domestic production has been as follows: 1918. 2 $1 1.00 .30 1.56 1921. 226, 240 Exports before the war were small and chiefly to the Orient. During the war a substantial export trade to Europe was developed. Exports in 1920 were 14,325,037 pounds, valued at $1.026,936; in 1922, 17,650,571 pounds, valued at $875,101, and in 1923, 40,498,964 pounds, valued at $1,606,054. Survey A-1. Sodium Carbonate, SODA ASH CALCINED, is the most important industrial alkali. It is not as strong as caustic soda, but is cheaper, easier to handle and ship, and is ordinarily used in preference to caustic soda wherever possible. There are two commercial grades, containing, respectively, 48 and 58 per cent of actual alkali (Na2O). The 58 per cent grade is sold as "light" and "dense." The dense product is twice as heavy per unit volume as the light and is used in glass, where small bulk is desired. The largest use of soda ash is in glass, soap, wood pulp and paper, caustic soda, and other sodium chemicals; in the dye and textile industries; in the manufacture of drugs, enamel ware, and cleaners; and for softening water. Production.-Practically all the soda ash manufactured is made from sodium bicarbonate derived from salt, by the ammonia-soda process. A small quantity of soda ash is made from the 'natural soda brines of the Western States, but this source is of little importance. Sodium bicarbonate is converted into soda ash by simply heating continuously in a revolving furnace. Some soda, ash is also made by the Hargreaves-Bird process, which produces caustic soda electrolytically in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, which immediately converts the caustic soda into soda ash. This process is used by several paper mills in this country. The domestic production has been as follows: Sodium Carbonate Hydrated (SAL SODA)—MÔxOHYDRATED SODIUM CARBONATE SODIUM SESQUICARBONATE, "Soda crystals" is an indefinite term applied to several crystalline sodium carbonates. These compounds may be sodium carbonate or a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, containing water of crystallization. Sal soda refers to crystals of completely hydrated sodium carbonate which contain 10 molecules of water (NaCO-10H,O). It is also known as washing soda. Monohydrated sodium carbonate is a crystalline compound of sodium carbonate containing one molecule of water (Na,CO-H2O). Sesquicarbonate of soda is a mixture of chemically equivalent parts of sodium carbonate and sodium acid carbonate crystallized with two molecules of water (Na2CO3-NaHCO,-2H,O). These crystalline products are used chiefly for washing and cleansing purposes, particularly in the laundry and household. Production-Sal soda is prepared by dissolving soda ash (sodium carbonate) in hot water to form a solution of a definite specific gravity. On allowing this solution to cool, the sodium carbonate crystallizes out with 10 molecules of water. The addition of a little sodium sulphate to the solution is necessary to obtain the proper crystal form. This fact, however, is sometimes taken advantage of to dilute the finished product with a cheaper inert material which has no cleaning properties. Sodium sesquicarbonate is formed by crystallization from a hot solution containing chemically equivalent quantities of sodium carbonate and sodium acid carbonate. For many purposes this product is preferred to the other soda crystals. Production in 1914 was 106,591 short tons of sal soda, including monohydrate crystals. The output since then has been as follows: 1914. 1918 1920 1 1921 1 Sales. Year. 1917. 55,035 1918. $1,262, 875 Short tons. Value, 22,678 482,958 1919 80, 090 2,229,994 31,278 714,930 19201. 62, 857 2, 128, 937 12,876 459, 167 Imports have been less than 1 per cent of production, and since 1917 have been as follows: * Figures not available. Imports of crystal carbonate, monohydrate, and sesquicarbonate were 354,609 pounds in 1912. Later statistics follow: 1920. 4,796 577 6 1921. 68,779 1,652 1.04 86 5.20 Survey A-18. Sodium Chlorate is a colorless crystalline compound composed of sodium, chlorine, and oxygen, readily soluble in water. It is used as an oxidizing agent in the manufacture of coal-tar dyes and in dyeing and printing textiles. Production, statistics are not available. It is generally manufactured by subjecting a solution of sodium chloride (salt) to the action of a direct current of electricity. The apparatus used for its manufacture electrolytically is expensive. It was formerly made by treating milk of lime with chlorine gas and converting the calcium chlorate formed into sodium chlorate by treatment with sodium sulphate (salt cake). Imports from 1915 to 1918 were between 22,000 and 45,000 pounds a year, and since have been as follows: Imports of salt are negligible, and chiefly from England and the British West Indies. Since 1917 they have been as follows: Year. In bags: 1918. Exports of salt increased from 41,908 short tons, valued at $286,363, in 1910, to 97,075 short tons, valued at $726,761, in 1917. Later statistics follow: 1919. 125,529 $1,901, 593 $1,429, 172 $1,211,226 134,989 39,022 3,814 195 5.12 1920. 561,513 50,266 2,808 5.59 1921. 659, 342 | 33,456 3,297 9.85 Survey A-18. 1922 950, 817 40, 905 4,754 11.62 1922+. 416,995 17,443 6,255 35.86 Sodium 1923. 1,333,418 49,352 20,001 40.53 Exports. Statistics are not available. Sodium Chloride (Salt) is one of the most common minerals. Besides its well-known uses, it is employed in the manufacture of chemicals, such as sodium bicarbonate, soda ash, sodium sulphate, hydrochloric acid, caustic soda, and chlorine, and in the dye industry for diluting dyes. Production of salt has shown a steady increase up to 1920, from about 3,000,000 tons in 1900 to about 6,000,000 tons in 1916, and nearly 7,000,000 tons in 1920. In 1921, production amounted to 4,981,154 tons. General statistics relating to production in the salt industry follow: Sodium Chromate and Dichromate. dichromate is a red crystalline compound containing about 67 per cent of chromic acid (Cr.Og). It is about ten times as soluble as the corresponding The potassium salt and is frequently preferred. sodium salt is also much cheaper and has replaced mate is a yellow crystalline compound containing potassium salt to a large extent. Sodium chroonly 29.2 per cent of chromic acid. The dichromate is generally preferred, owing to its greater richness in chromic acid, the active constituent. Chromates and dichromates are used for the chrome tanning of leather; in textile dyeing and printing; in the manufacture of chrome colors, pigments, and chrome alum, especially lead and barium chromates; for pickling brass; in the electroengraving of copper plates; as laboratory reagents; and in the bleaching of oils and fats. Production. All of the chromium salts are prepared from chrome iron ore or chromite. The ore is pulverized and mixed with lime and soda ash and roasted in a strong current of air. Calcium chromate, which is produced with sodium chromate, is converted into sodium chromate by the addition of soda ash. Sodium chromate is usually converted directly in solution to sodium dichromate by treatment with sulphuric acid. Sodium dichromate when used in oxidation processes is reduced to chromium sulphate, which may be reconverted into sodium dichromate and used again. Domestic production of sodium dichromate and chromate has been as follows: Year. Per cent wages are of added value....... |