Imports are given with "Herring, etc." Export figures are combined with "other fish oils."

Seal oil is obtained from the blubber of various species of seal. It is used as a lubricant, as illuminating oil in lighthouses, and as an adulterant of cod-liver oil. Poorer qualities serve in the manufacture of soft soaps and in the leather industry. Production is small in the United States. There are legal restrictions on the killing of seals.

Imports have been somewhat irregular. In 1914 the import. chiefly from Newfoundland, was 179.734 gallons; for 1915-1917 the average was about 500,000 gallons. Later statistics follow:

1922 † 1923

46,178 12,795 27.71

Exports. Combined with "other fish oils." Whale oil is used for illumination, making leather dressing, and when hydrogenated produces edible and soap fats. In Norway hydrogenated whale oil is of great importance and is consumed in the manufacture of oleomargarine. In pressing whale oil a by-product of stearin is obtained, which serves principally in the manufacture of soap and as a lubricant.

Production of whale oil in the United States since 1912 has been as follows:

1918.

1919.

1920.

1921.

1922*

1922†

1923.

Year.

Gallons. Value. Duty. Rate.

2,657,790 13,972,612 9,562, 508

345, 168 1,814,625

1,241,753

1920.

23, 051, 811 2,994,000

Exports. Statistics combined with "other fish

oils.'

Sod. Chamois and similar leathers are saturated with whale or fish oil during manufacture, allowed to ferment, and part of the oil pressed out. The oil remaining in the leather is removed with alkali and then liberated with an acid. This recovered oil is known as sod oil, and in Europe as degras. It is in great demand for treating leather.

Production.-Statistics not available. Imports are shown with "Herring, etc." Exports. Combined with "other fish oils." Sperm oil is obtained from the blubber and head cavity of the sperm whale. The head oil is considered more valuable than the body oil, but the two are frequently mixed. When the oil stands, a solid portion separates, which is pressed out and sold as spermaceti.

Arctic sperm oil is obtained from the bottlenose whale. This oil gums more easily than sperm oil, and therefore does not command so high a price. Sperm oil is valuable as a lubricant for rapidrunning light machinery; it is also used for illumination, for leather dressing, and for tempering steel. Production of sperm oil in the United States since 1912 has been as follows:

1922 t. 1923

Exports of whale oil, first reported in 1922. were in that year 583,270 pounds, valued at $53.061; and in 1923, 722,530 pounds, valued at $31,138. Other fish oils include chiefly sardine and salmon oils, which are obtained principally as by-products of the fish-canning industry. The various fish oils are used extensively in the leather industry, some for adulterating linseed oil and others are hydrogenated to produce a solid fat, which may enter into the manufacture of soap.

Production of "all other fish oils" since 1912 has been as follows:

170, 374

49,985

5,111

4. 29 10.22

8,330 1,666 20.00 8,873 20.00

19221.. 1923 1..

See ACIDS.

1923

133,388 $137, 107

OLEIC ACID. OLIVE OIL, See OILS, EXPRESSED OR EXTRACTED.

OLIVES. The products of the industry relating to this fruit are pickled olives (green or ripe), saltcured olives, pitted or stuffed olives, and olive oil. Production. The fruit is grown in a warm, dry climate, free from frost, and its production requires skill and long experience in culture. The tree begins to bear commercially when 5 to 7 years old, and may be productive for several centuries. Domestic olive culture is confined to California and small areas in Arizona, with a total acreage of about 1 per cent of the Spanish or Italian orchards. Only recently has the industry been firmly placed, and its present status is due largely to improve ments in growing and handling, especially in pickling the ripe olive, in which the United States has virtually a monopoly. Competing countries have not produced ripe olives, partly because of the presence of the olive fly, which honeycombs the ripe fruit.

Spain, the principal source of imported olives, grows chiefly those used for pickling, while those grown for oil predominate in Italy, whence is normally derived most of the olive oil. In the domestic industry, pickles and oil are largely joint products, the culls and injured ripe olives being manufactured into oil and the better grades pickled. Olives for oil, usually grown without irrigation, are being abandoned for the more profitable ripe olives. The competition of foreign oils is a strong trade factor.

In 1921 there were in the United States about 40,000 acres in olives, of which between 20,000 and 30,000 acres were bearing. About 50 per cent of the olives were pickled, and the remainder were salt-cured, pickled green, or crushed for oil. The pickled ripe olives amount to over 1,000,000 gallons annually. The output varies with fluctuations in yield and in the percentage suitable for pickling. The production in 1909 was 16,405,493 pounds, valued at $404,574, and in 1919, 17,676,581 pounds, valued at $1,416,377. Except for 112,561 pounds, the 1919 yield was all produced in California. According to the California Olive Association pro

Growers estimate the average value in 1921 of bearing lands, both good and bad, at $750 per acre and of nonbearing lands at $500.

Both the pickling and the oil processing are performed in specially equipped packing plants, sometimes in connection with olive groves. There were 26 commercial processing plants in California and Arizona in 1921, and half of these were equipped for making olive oil. As the packing season lasts only three or four months, these establishments usually engage in canning other products. In the Mediterranean countries olives are generally grown and processed as a family enterprise, and brokers buy, assemble, and grade the product at gathering stations. The pickling process consists in first neutralizing with an alkali (usually lye) the tannic acid of the olive, after which the product is aerated to "settle" the color and impart the characteristic black tinge. The lye is then washed off, the olives placed in brine solutions, and later canned. The price varies with the size of the olives.

Imports, principally from Spain, ranged during 1910-1917 between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000 gallons, about five times the domestic crop. They consisted of the highest-priced product, green olives, mostly "queens" or large-sized olives, and included relatively but a small amount of the lowerpriced Manzanilla or small olives. The shipments are largely in bulk, being bottled or packed in this country. The bottling and packing and the pitting and stuffing of imported olives is a considerable industry. Later statistics follow:

Production.-In 1910 there were 47,625 acres under onion cultivation, producing a crop valued at $6,709,047. In 1921 there were 55,829 acres, producing a crop of 12,652,000 bushels valued at $26,966,000. New York, Ohio, and Texas grew about one-third of the output. The growing of Bermuda onions in southern Texas has become a successful and important industry. Commercial production of garlic in the United States is very small.

Imports of onions in 1914 were 1,096,781 bushels, valued at 890,508, and of garlic, 9,282,302 pounds. The Latin population consumes the greater part of the garlic. Imports since 1917 have been as follows:

Duty. Rate.

148,000 14.57 363,703 15.40

29,449 16.73 709,370 35.24 419,415 25.44

76,864

1921 1

7,023, 952

378,660

70, 240

1922 *

5,392, 342

250, 803

82,634

281,066

1 Jan. 1-May 27.

Survey G-15.

259,965 55.98 2,280,007 1,114,399 48.82

39,919 18. 16 99,375

7.51 8.84

18.55 53,923 21.50 36,006 43.57 134,528 47.86

May 28-Dec. 31.

ONION SEED. See SEEDS, GARDEN AND FIELD.

ONYX. See MARBLE, BRECCIA AND ONYX.

OPEN DOOR. There is lacking any general agreement as to the precise meaning of this term. The Cyclopedia of American Government says the expression is "usually defined as meaning equal opportunities and treatment for the citizens of all foreign countries in their enterprises in some particular territory. It may be regarded as the generalization in certain specified regions of the most-favored-nation clause" (see).

In discussing the open-door area Gregory, following closely Dr. Sigmund Schilder, says: "There are two, and two essential features only, which distinguish the open-door area: Firstly, the tariff autonomy of the area is limited by irrevocable treaties; secondly, the content of such treaties is such as to throw open the trade of the area on equal terms to all trading nations, or at any rate to the signatories. Such treaties may also stipulate for a low range of customs duties but this is not an absolutely indispensable feature of the situation, though an alteration of the duties can not take place without general agreement of all the powers with whom treaties have been concluded. It is necessary to emphasize the fact that the open-door area is only bound to the signatories of the treaties; to other States it is not bound, unless it conclude special treaties with

1 Cyclopedia of American Government, 1914.

Gregory, T. E. G., Tariffs: A Study in Method, London, 1921, pp. 34-38.

There is a question whether the treaties need be irrevocable. Other criticisms are also made of Gregory's statements. (See below.)

(1) The older' open-door areas. Turkey China, Siam (Morocco, Tunis, and Tripoli, as well as Japan, were at one time in this position), with settled, even if backward, Governments of their

own.

"(2) The 'newer' open-door areas, representing either (a) areas taken over for colonization or exploitation purposes by the powers, such as the great belt of equatorial Africa dealt with by the great Berlin act of 1886, and the subsequent act of Brussels of 1890. (b) Areas which, though in the past subject to full open-door rights, are on the way to being pure colonies, in which the open door now simply temporarily limits the rights of the possessing power for a determinate period. (c) Areas with settled Governments of their own, but in which one or more of the great powers possess special political interests, such as Persia and Afghanistan, the trading rights to which areas were part of the settlement between the United Kingdom and Russia before the

"The whole position of open-door areas is essentially unstable. They may cease to be open to the trade of all nations in consequence of their becoming strong enough to throw off the shackles formerly pressing on them, or because they are taken over by a colonizing power which gradually emancipates itself from the obligations it has formerly incurred. With the intensification of imperialist claims in the last few decades this process of absorption went on on a large scale. The series of treaties which are liquidating the results of the Great War will, when they are completed, have parceled out the whole available territory, with the exception of China and Siam, and possibly Abyssinia."

The following discussion of the term "open door" is adapted from an article by Dr. Benjamin B. Wallace in the Annals of the American Academy, March, 1924:

Secretary of State Hughes has said: "The open-door policy is not limited to China. Recently we have had occasion to apply it to mandated territories. It voices, whenever and wherever there may be occasion, the American principle of fair treatment and freedom from unjust and injurious discrimination." This statement fittingly introduces the following discussion of the open door as a "principle of fair treatment" or equality for 4 But see below.

• In an address in New Haven, December, 1922,

the commerce of all nations. Many have looked upon the open door as applicable only to China or other countries of the Orient. Some have even confused it with free trade. A few standard textbooks contain definitions, which, although de fensible upon historical grounds, are narrow, rigid, and unsuited to the needs of diplomacy and

commerce.

Before proceeding farther it should be understood, of course, that equality of treatment for the commerce of all nations has wider application than to import duties, harbor dues, and railroad rates. It also means equality between the citizens of all other nations in the open-door country's other commercial and industrial advantages, such as mining and forest concessions, charters for banking and industrial corporations, and State loans and contracts for public works. This is a most important and difficult part of the subject and beyond the scope of the present discussion.

1. According to common usage, the term "open door" applies to certain colonial possessions bound by treaty to give equality of treatment. The phrase is also accurately employed to describe the status of certain colonies having no treaty obligations. Equally valid, though not yet common, is the use of the same words to define the domestic policies of European and American States when in conformity with the "open-door" principle.

2. The term "open door? implies a policy extended equally to all nations. According to some definitions, a country may be included in the opendoor class if it guarantees by most-favored-nation (see) treaties an open door to a limited number of countries, although discriminating against nontreaty States. In the field of politics it is not well to insist on rigid definitions admitting of no exceptions, but, unless the exceptions are trivial, it is obviously a denial of the whole principle to affirm that an open door may be open to some and closed to others. The next proposition will emphasize the importance of this point.

3. The test of the open door is performance rather than treaty.-It should be axiomatic that an open door is one which is, in fact, open, irrespective of formal obligations; yet some writers have pedantically refused to recognize that a door is open unless that status is guaranteed by "irrevocable treaties.' But if the second of the above propositions be granted this restriction would exclude from the category every country not under a treaty obligation or a series of obligations to grant equality of treatment to products of all countries. When one examines the treaties of open-door countries, however, one finds that such an obligation scarcely exists. The term "open door" has been applied to China for two decades or more, but it was not until the signature of the nine-power treaty (not yet ratified in June, 1924) that China engaged herself in general terms to maintain the open door. Before this date there existed only her treaties granting most-favored-nation treatment to products of certain countries. Morocco pledged the open door in 1880 only to the dozen signatories of the treaty of Madrid, and while the act of Algeciras adopted the principle of "economic equality without discrimination," it appears that the French authorities of Morocco have imposed heavy penalties on the importation of German goods.

1 For instance, Dr. Sigmund Schilder's Entwicklungstenden zen der Weltwirtschaft and Josef Grunzel's Economic Protectionism. CL. Schilder and Grunzel, op. cit.

The Conventional Basin of the Congo has been an open-door region for nearly 40 years and technically its treaty agreements to maintain this status appear to be inescapable; but it may be noted that the principal allied countries did not so construe these obligations in 1919; that is to say, they undertook to revise the general act of the conference of Berlin (1885) and to restrict the guaranty of equality of treatment in the Congo Basin to States which are members of the League of Nations. Similarly, the open door in the mandated territories is not guaranteed to nonmembers of the league.

Space does not permit discussion of certain other cases in which through bilateral treaties or exchanges of notes pledges of equality of treatment in various colonial possessions have been given in general terms. The typical position is found, however, where an open-door country, or a mother country, in respect to a colony, has made from one to half a dozen or possibly a dozen treaties which pledge equality of treatment for either a limited or an indefinite period and where the maintenance of the open door for the rest of the world depends wholly upon the prevailing national policy. This is the situation of Siam, Persia, Turkey, Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and Egypt, and was the status of Korea and Tunis; it was also the status of Zanzibar before it adhered to the general act of the Berlin Conference. It is the situation of American Samoa, British Nigeria and the Gold Coast, French Dahomey and the Ivory Coast; and it was the position of all the German colonies, except Southwest Africa. Ethiopia has a single most-favored-nation treaty of indefinite duration, and the maintenance of the open door in the Philippines from 1898 to 1909 rested upon a single treaty.

4. The "open door? does not mean and should not mean free trade or limited tariff rates.-It is true that most of the older States in which the open door exists do have their customs duties limited by treaty to certain specific or ad valorem maxima, but it is generally agreed that such a restriction is not an essential feature of the open door. The diplomats who in 1919 revised the general act of the Berlin Conference and abolished the limit of 10 per cent ad valorem upon import duties, would never admit that they were thereby destroying the open-door principle.

There may be objection to the application of the term "open door to countries which maintain protective tariffs, but the distinction between, tariffs for revenue and protective tariffs is one impossible to draw, except in an arbitrary way. It is very doubtful whether a single country can be named (aside from a few places that may be designated as free ports (see)) whose tariff is totally without protective effect. It has been observed that even the tariffs of the open-door countries in which the rates are limited to 10 or 11 per cent or less have shown protective effects.

Summing up the four points, the open door is a term of universal application without geographical limitation; it implies the granting of equality of treatment to products of all nations; it rests upon policy and not upon treaty obligations; and it means uniform duties without necessarily implying low rates.

An open-door country may be defined, conformably to the limited aspect which is now considered, as one which adopts and realizes for itself a policy of no discriminations between nations, or of equality of treatment to products of all countries. This definition makes the term

"open door" applicable to the oriental countries which are bound by fairly numerous treaties; to colonies where the open door rests on a very slight treaty basis; to colonies such as the Dutch East Indies, India, and certain British Crown colonies where the open door has no treaty basis; and to certain countries of Europe and the Americas which follow the policy of imposing single rates of duty, or which, upon reducing their rates in commercial agreements, generalize the concessions to all countries. It should be emphasized that no definition of the open door is satisfactory which denies the applicability of the term to colonies like the Dutch East Indies and British India, where the door is in fact open and has been so for decades. A door which is voluntarily held open should unquestionably be recognized as an open door. On the other hand, treaties are sometimes ratified without enthusiasm, and the question may be raised whether one should designate as opendoor areas certain colonies, protectorates, mandated territories, or spheres of influence where pledges have been given in formal treaties that the door will remain open but where the officials of the governing nation more or less openly use their powers to impose greater burdens upon merchandise the product of foreign countries than upon similar merchandise produced by their fellowcountrymen.

For a discussion of the open door in colonial policy, see COLONIAL TARIFF POLICIES.

Some of the "older" open-door areas call for special comment. In Turkey the open door rested before the World War upon treaty provisions under which a dozen countries were placed upon a mostfavored-nation basis. In addition to this, under the "capitulations" which Turkey had granted in early times to the European powers, her rate of customs duty was long limited to 3 per cent ad valorem, but in recent decades there have been successive increases. (See also TARIFF HISTORY, TURKEY.)

In China the application of the principle of the open door became a matter of prominent international notice when at the close of the nineteenth century the European powers were unusually active in enlarging their fields of special interest in that country. It was in 1899 that Secretary Hay asked the powers to accept the principle of equality of treatment and opportunity in all the territories of the Chinese Empire, whatever I might be the changes in their political status. As no Government was willing to admit an intention of annexing Chinese territory for selfish trade purposes, all with more or less willingness agreed to the proposition. Since that time the maintenance of the open door has been the corner stone of the American policy in the Far East. "In theory the right is not denied by any power, but in practice a State can find quiet means of favoring the trade of its own citizens in lands which it controls." 1

The nine-power treaty, relating to principles concerning China, signed at Washington, February 6, 1922, provides that the signatories (including China herself) will use their influence for the purpose of effectually establishing and maintaining the principle of the open door or equal opportunity for the commerce and industry of all nations throughout the territory of China. The foreign powers in definite terms bind themselves to refrain from seeking or supporting their nationals in seeking any special privileges, superiority of rights, monopoly or preference,

1 Cyclopedia of American Government, 1914.

sphere of influence, or mutually exclusive opportunity in China or in any designated region of China. (In August, 1924, this treaty had been ratified by all signatory powers except France.) (See TARIFF HISTORY, CHINA.)

Japan was an open-door country after it was thrown open by the United States in 1854. The import duties were limited, foreigners enjoyed the right of consular jurisdiction, and the treaty powers were accorded unilateral most-favored-nation status. With growing power Japan sought to disengage herself from these arrangements, but not until after 1894 did she succeed in concluding new commercial treaties which did away with exterritoriality and placed the most-favored-nation provisions on a mutual basis. The import tariff of 1906 transformed the ad valorem duties which had previously dominated the system into specific duties and raised the rates. (See TARIFF HISTORY, JAPAN.)

Siam has been an open-door country since the conclusion of treaties to that effect about the middle of the nineteenth century. Its Government can collect duties of 3 per cent only on imports and is obliged to grant exterritoriality and other special privileges to foreigners.

By the treaty with Russia of 1828 Persia was bound to ad valorem duties of 5 per cent, which most-favored-nation treaties made applicable to other countries as well. The English-Russian treaty of partition of 1907, by which Russia received preferential rights in the north and England in the south, left the commercial policy relations unchanged.2

OPERA AND FIELD GLASSES. See OPTICAL GOODS.

OPIUM is a drug consisting of the air-dried juices of the poppy plant. It is used in medicine to induce sleep and insensibility to pain, and in the manufacture of alkaloids, of which morphine, heroin, and codeine are of chief importance. One pound of opium supplies about 7,000 medicinal doses.

Production. Commercial opium, derived mainly from Asiatic Turkey and Persia, has a higher alkaloid content than that from other important producing countries, rendering it unfit for smoking purposes. Smoking opium, which is used chiefly or wholly by addicts, contains less than 9 per cent morphine and was formerly produced in large quantities in India and China. East Indian cultivation of the poppy has recently been much restricted. It has also been prohibited in China for some years, although governmental disturbances in that country have aided illicit production. Greece, Bulgaria, and a number of other countries produce small amounts of opium. It has been produced experimentally in the United States also, but the costs of production are at present considered prohibitive. The poppy is extensively raised for seed in California and elsewhere. The seed, which contains no alkaloid, is used for the expression of oil and for culinary purposes. Poppy culture in the tropical possessions of the United States has been discouraged.

The consumption of opium in the manufacture of "druggist preparations and patent medicines

60-61.

Grunzel, Josef, Economic Protectionism, Oxford, 1916, pp. Other references: Schilder, Sigmund, Entwicklungstendenzen der Weltwirtschaft, Berlin, 1912, pp. 272-340; Toninas, Shutaro, The Open-Door Policy and the Territorial Integrity of China, New York, 1919; Culbertson, W. S.,, Commercial Policy in War Time and After, New York, 1919, pp. 278-295; Ban, M.J., The Open-Door Doctrine in Relation to China, New York, 1923; Yen, E. T., The Open-Door Policy, Boston, 1923.