such assistance is proved to be necessary because of the inability of the industries to maintain or develop themselves by reason of undue foreign competition, inadequate supply of raw materials, or any other causes."'1

In November, 1919, a bill was introduced in England to protect "key" industries. It was primarily a licensing measure and contained a provision for the creation of a "Trade Regulations Committee' to have charge of the general enforcement of the measure, while the immediate administration was to be vested in the Board of Trade. There was not sufficient support to obtain action at that session of Parliament. Another bill for the same purpose was introduced in March, 1920, with a view to giving effect to the recommendations of the Balfour Committee on dumping. This bill was rejected in April, 1920.2 |

On August 19, 1921, however, the "safeguarding of industries act' was passed, providing for the levying of customs duties on various classes of goods looked upon in Great Britain as the products of essential industries.

It is provided that all goods specified in the act as belonging to certain general classes shall be subject to a duty of one-third of the value of the goods themselves; that no duty shall be charged upon goods produced or manufactured in the British Empire, and that the Board of Trade shall issue from time to time lists defining more specifically the articles which shall be taken as falling under any of the general descriptions set out in the following schedule:

France has sought to preserve economic independence by maintaining a high maximum tarifi directed chiefly against Germany.

A number of nations, including the United States, have also enacted special measures against DUMPING (see) and provisions against UNFAIR FOREIGN COMPETITION (see). With the exception of such measures, and the levying of high duties on various products of primary importance, the United States has taken no special measures except for a short period following the armistice.

During the war the import of all commodities into the United States was under Government control. After July 14, 1919, the importation of dyes, drugs, and chemicals of enemy origin was under license control of the War Trade Board section of the Department of State. Import permits were granted when the dye or a satisfactory substitute therefor was not obtainable in this country on reasonable terms as to price, quality, and delivery. On May 27, 1921, the dye and chemical control act of the emergency tariff came into effect. This included dyes, coal-tar derivatives, synthetic organic chemicals, and sodium nitrite of both enemy and nonenemy origin. The control of the imports of these products was placed under the Secretary of the Treasury. This selec tive control of imports was ended on September 21, 1922, by the passage of the tariff act of 1922 in spite of an insistent plea on the part of American manufacturers for its continuation. The act of 1922, however, recognized the importance of the dye and coal-tar chemical industry from the standpoint of "economic independence" by assessing on such products similar to those produced in the United States high rates of duty (ad valorem) based on valuation," the basis for assessing all other ad American selling prices" instead of on "foreign valorem duties. (See DUTIABLE VALUE.)

industry as furthering economic independence, The importance of the dye and coal-tar chemical particularly from a national defense viewpoint, is its close relationship to explosives, poisonous gases, medicinals, and photographic chemicals—all of military importance. The plants manufacturing of explosives. The equipment and intermediate identical with those used in manufacturing certain products required for making many explosives are coal-tar dyes. For example, a plant making the dye, sulphur black, can produce in time of emergency the explosive, picric acid. The technically trained staff of the dye factories is an especially important factor in time of emergency.

dyes can readily be converted for the production

In addition to the fundamental item of explosives, the production of toxic gases is a vital requirement in modern warfare. Here, again, the apparatus, materials, and scientific staff of the dye factory are admirably adapted to manufacture poison gases on a large scale. Coal-tar medicinals are also essential for the national welfare of both the military and the civilian population. (See also EMBARGOES.)

ECONOMIC LIAISON COMMITTEE. To

coordinate better the economic work of the various Government departments, the Secretary of State instituted in March, 1919, the weekly meeting of a group of department representatives known as the Economic Liaison Committee. The committee has no official status. Its function is to bring about cooperation among the departments represented, to provide for the informal discussion of all economic problems, to prevent overlapping and duplication of Government activities, and to prepare and distribute among the Government departments

timely reports on pertinent subjects and questions relating to the foreign commerce of the United States and its economic relations with other Governments.1

ports of dried-egg products amounted to about 1,700,000 pounds. Later statistics follow.

1918.

Year.

1922.

EGGPLANT SEED. See SEEDS, GARDEN AND

FIELD.

EGGS OF BIRDS, FISH; AND INSECTS. General. The importation of eggs of wild birds. except for propagation, is prohibited. The purpose of this legislation is to prevent decimation of flocks of migratory birds or fowls; also to check imports of eggs of undesirable or harmful species. Dried Eggs. In drying, either the whole egg is broken out of the shell, or the white and the yolk are separated. On being subjected to the application of heat, the water content (about 73 per cent) is reduced by more than 90 per cent; thus a pound of the dried product equals from 36 to 40 eggs in the

shell.

From 10 to 11 eggs in the shell will make 1 pound of frozen or one-third pound dried egg. One pound of dried albumen is equivalent to about 7 pounds of frozen or liquid albumen. One pound of dried yolk is equivalent to about 2 pounds of frozen or liquid yolk.

Dried eggs have a wider range of usefulness than frozen eggs, since the dried product can be used in the household, and in camps, etc., where fresh eggs and refrigerating facilities are not available. Dried eggs are also used to some extent in hospitals and other institutions. Dried whole eggs and yolks are mainly consumed by pie and pastry bakers; dried albumen by cake, pie, and pastry bakers and confectioners. Quantities are also used in the arts.

Production. In the United States the drying industry is of little importance as compared with that of freezing eggs. It has virtually ceased since 1916 owing to competition with China.

Imports of dried-egg products, almost exclusively from China, increased enormously after the reduction of the import duties in 1913. American plants operating in China supply only a small part of domestic consumption. Prior to 1914 imports were negligible, the domestic demand being supplied by domestic manufacturers, In 1914 the total im

166th Cong., 2d sess., H. Doc. No. 650, Foreign Trade Promotion Work, Bureau of Efficiency, 1920, p. 34. 1T. D. 34275, Mar. 16, 1914.

1919.

2,643,302

1,562, 587

264,330

16.92

1920.

2,719, 276

1,251, 843

271, 928

21.72

1921. 1922 1922+. 1923..

2,000, 847

2,968, 951

Exports of yolk and canned eggs have never been of more than slight importance. They were valued at less than $50,000 in pre-war years. Recent exports, which have gone largely to Great Britain, have been valued as follows: 1918, $718,066; 1920, $309,651; 1922, $130,994; and 1923, $49,193.

Frozen Eggs. Of the three methods of preserving eggs removed from the shell--(1) freezing, (2) drying or desiccating, and (3) adding preservatives the first two produce food if the material used is wholesome, while the third gives a product known as "liquid" eggs or liquid albumen and yolk, which, under the pure food and drugs act, must be denatured, or rendered unfit for other than industrial purposes.

Commercial frozen eggs, frozen albumen and yolk (eggs that are graded, broken, and frozen in large containers, the whites and yolk being first either mixed, when whole eggs are desired, or separated in the case of the other products) are extensively used by cake bakers and establishments which consume large quantities of eggs. There is a large demand for the separated albumen and yolk, as well as for the whole egg. Apart from being cheaper, the frozen product has advantages over the shell egg in long-distance transportation; its importation in this form saves space and storage, and eliminates breakage and other waste.

Liquid eggs, liquid yolk, and especially liquid and dried albumen are used in the industries, the first two in tanning leather, while albumen is extensively used in the textile industries, in finishing paper, sensitizing photographic plates, and thickening inks.

Production. Most of the "egg-breaking" plants are located near the important sources of raw materials, chiefly in the Middle West. In manufacture, the commercial grade of "seconds" is employed. The industry furnishes an outlet for, and prevents the loss of, millions of dozens of inferior eggs, which, though still wholesome, often may not be profitably transported or stored. Indicative of the importance of this industry may be cited the fact that 15,800,000 pounds of frozen eggs, equiva lent to about 14,000,000 dozen fresh eggs, were reported in cold storage in 1918; in 1923, cold storage holdings were 35,914,000 pounds, equivalent to about 31,604,320 dozen fresh eggs.

Imports of frozen eggs were negligible prior to 1914; in that year those of frozen eggs amounted to 2,647,974 pounds, valued at $305,232, and of frozen

albumen to 259,587 pounds, valued at $4,067. Imports increased steadily thereafter until their prohibition, effective from June, 1918, to February, 1919. After the removal of the prohibition the volume of imports again increased. Egg products are imported almost exclusively from China, where the industry has rapidly developed under American, European, and Japanese capital. England, the center of the egg trade, usually has taken the greater part of Chinese exports. American receipts are chiefly at New York, Seattle, and San Francisco.

Statistics of imports of eggs and egg products follow:

sive, the average annual importation amounted to 1,906,000 dozens. In China 2 dozen can be bought at seaports for the price of 1 dozen in America; when carefully selected and handled, these eggs can be placed on the American market and sold to bakers, who use principally cheaper grades known as "seconds." Chinese eggs are marketed chiefly at New York. Since 1917 imports of eggs in the shell have been as follows:

Exports. The annual exports of poultry eggs have ranged from 15,400,000 dozens to 38,327,000 dozens between 1912 and 1921, and have averaged 28,600,000 dozens. Previous to the war they went principally to Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and Canada. A part of the exports to Canada were regraded and forwarded to England. During the war heavy shipments were made direct to England, but in 1921 these virtually ceased; Cuba, Mexico, and Canada are again the chief customers, receiving about 82 per cent. of the total. Exports of eggs since 1917 have been as follows:

12,686

3,527,758

Yolk of eggs, frozen or

dried:

1922+

1923.

3.508 910, 131

748

117, 134

210 28.14 54,608 46.62

1 Between 70 and 76 per cent of this is frozen. The equivalent ad valorem is 59.94 per cent on the dried, and 35.82 per cent on the frozen yolk.

Exports.-None recorded.

Poultry Eggs. The domestic production of eggs reaches enormous figures: In 1909, 1,575,000,000 dozens were reported, valued at $281,000,000. Farm sales amounted to $150,000,000. In 1919 production amounted to 1,654,000,000 dozens and in 1923, to 2,196,194,000 dozens. Although egg production is usually a by-product enterprise, there are large numbers of poultry farms and ranches in regions climatically and economically favorable, and especially near dense populations, as in New Jersey, the southeastern counties of Pennsylvania, and at Petaluma, near San Francisco. Cold storage and refrigeration in transit have revolutionized the business, making possible the commercial shipment of eggs from Hungary, California, and even China, to Atlantic markets. Production is largely seasonal; a surplus is produced during the four months beginning with March, placed in cold storage, and marketed during the succeeding months of comparative scarcity and higher prices. The annual receipts of cities such as New York and Chicago approximate 150,000,000 dozens, and of St. Louis and Cincinnati 50,000,000 dozens.

Imports of eggs in the shell during 1911-1913 averaged about 1,000,000 dozens. The removal of the duty of 5 cents per dozen in 1913 was followed by a great increase in imports from Hungary, from Russia (via Germany), and especially from China, which subsequently became the chief ource of foreign supplies with the loss of European sources during the war. From 1914 to 1921, inclu

Silkworm Eggs are the eggs of the mulberry butterfly, from which silkworms are artificially hatched after a lapse of about 10 months, during which the eggs are kept in some form of cold storage. These worms feed for about four weeks and then spin the cocoon, the spinning process taking about three days. After 12 to 18 days in the chrysalis stage within the cocoon the adult insect emerges. With most of the varieties there is but one generation each year; with some varieties, however, there are two, three, or more generations each year.

Imports of silkworm eggs during the period 19111917 occurred in only two years and were insigwere made in the course of unsuccessful attempts nificant: 1911, $6; 1917, $353. These imports to establish the raw-silk industry in the United States. Imports during the period 1918-1923 were as follows (000 omitted):

Production.-Production of electric insulators made of "composition" in 1921 was valued at $2,820,000.

Imports and exports.-Not shown. Imports before the war were principally from Germany.

ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERIES AND PARTS. An electric battery is an apparatus, consisting of one or more cells, used for the generation of an electric current. A storage battery-also called secondary battery and accumulator is for the so-called storage of electricity. In storage batteries the electrodes are commonly lead plates surrounded by dilute sulphuric acid. During the discharge lead sulphate is formed on the plates, the action being similar to that of the primary battery. The action of the storage battery is, however, reversible, since, by passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction, the plates are restored to their original state, and are again capable of delivering a current. One cell usually contains several plates. The automobile industry is a large user of storage batteries. The manufacture of plates and connections for storage batteries has become a very important outlet for lead.

In the storage cell invented by Edison the plates are perforated cases of nickel, containing nickel oxide and finely divided iron, surrounded by an alkaline solution.

Production.-In 1921 the production of storage batteries was valued at $43,242,000, and of parts and supplies for same at $5,316,000. The corresponding figures for 1919 were $56,648,347 and $3.387,805, and for 1914 were $10.615,150 and $2,465,814.

Imports.None recorded in earlier years. After the tariff act of 1922, imports of batteries were valued at $1,558; and in 1923 at $7,538.

Exports.-Exports of batteries for recent years were as follows: 1918, $3,178,437; 1920, $6,633,542; 1922, $1,473,560; and 1923, $2,344,232. Figures for 1922 and 1923 are for storage batteries alone; those for previous years include batteries of all kinds. This exported material goes principally to the United Kingdom, Argentina, Australia, and Cuba.

Survey C-13.

ELECTRODES. See CARBON PRODUCTS.

EMBARGO.. This term may have either of two general meanings: (1) An edict or order of the Government prohibiting the departure or entry of ships of commerce at ports within its dominions, called a hostile embargo if laid on an enemy's ships, and a civil embargo if on domestic ships. The embargo may be absolute, as when laid upon an enemy's ships, or partial, as when laid upon domestic ships to prevent or control trade with a particular country or of a certain kind. (2) Any prohibition imposed by law upon commerce either in general or in one or more of its branches. 1

The first type of embargo has been employed more as a political than an economic measure, and need be mentioned only because of the prominent part it played in early American history.

The first American embargo was laid in 1794 in retaliation for certain British Orders in Council and remained in effect for 60 days. During the wars between France and Great Britain, successive French and British decrees drove the United States, by way of reprisal, first to the passage of a nonimportation act (April, 1806) and finally to the laying of another and stricter embargo in 1807. The latter measure was intended completely to prevent American vessels from engaging in foreign 1 Webster's Dictionary.

commerce. Under this law commerce suffered enormously, and the opposition, especially in the New England States, was so great that in many quarters nullification was openly advocated. The embargo injured neither France nor Great Britain as seriously as it did the United States and had little effect upon the policies of either country relative to the United States. The act was terminated in 1809. Nonintercourse measures were then put into force and were the chief feature of the foreign policy of the Government until the outbreak of the war in 1812. After the beginning of hostilities of the War of 1812 it soon became evident that the British Government would endeavor to procure fresh provisions from the New England States; and Congress again laid an embargo, December 17, 1813, to remain in force until January 1, 1815. On April 14, 1814. however, this embargo was repealed.?

From the point of view of general commercial policies, embargoes upon the importation or exportation of goods are of the greater significance.

In ancient times import prohibitions were unimportant as compared with embargoes of exportation. In the Middle Ages restrictions were directed more against foreign merchants than against their wares-e. g., in Florence, French cloths could not be purchased from other than Florentine merchants. Nevertheless, unconditional embargoes appear rather early. For example, in Parma in 1211 foreign woolen cloths were required to be destroyed. In the fifteenth century a large variety of goods was embargoed by Venice, while in Florence the prohibitions applied to a few important products. Thus, in 1458 all kinds of cloths were denied admittance to the latter city. This action was supported by the argument that foreigners would value Florentine cloths lightly if Florence used foreign goods. The loss of the gold payable for imports was also a consideration. (See BALANCE OF TRADE.) In France, also, where import duties first appeared in the sixteenth century, embargoes were employed at an early date. For example, an ordinance of 1443 denied entry to English and other cloths on the ground of preventing the flow of money to England. In England in the second half of the thirteenth century an embargo was for a short time directed against foreign cloths. A similar provision in 1338 was moderated by licenses. Of greater importance was the commercial-political embargo (1436) on all Netherlands goods.

The beginnings of a systematic industrial protective policy by means of embargoes occur, however, in the second half of the fifteenth century. In 1445, in the interests of the domestic silk producers, the importation into England of foreign silk goods was forbidden for a period of five years, and this prohibition was subsequently repeated with frequency, and, finally, under Henry VII, declared permanent for certain varieties of silks. There was enacted under Edward IV (1464) an embargo against nearly all manufactures of special importance, but this was not to affect the commerce of the Hansa towns. Under Henry VII and Henry VIII the most of these prohibitions were not strictly maintained, but under Elizabeth the prohibitive system attained im. portance. The mercantilistic view of the balance of trade was of strong influence at this time, as well as the demand for protection of national labor. A powerful argument was the widely

New International Encyclopedia.

prevalent unemployment caused in part by the extensive substitution of sheep pasturage for farming. By the extension of the navigation act (see) in 1662 importation was forbidden the following goods coming from Germany and the Netherlands: Wine (except Rhenish), spices, tobacco, salt, olive oil, potash, pitch, resin, and lumber. This embargo continued until 1822.

After the outbreak of war with France, French wares were in 1689 prohibited entrance, and subsequently were partly under embargo, and partly subject to prohibitive tariffs until the treaty of 1786, which substituted moderate tariffs for most of the embargoes. This treaty was in effect, however, only a few years. It was shown by the parliamentary investigation of 1814 that at this time (1814) there existed embargoes upon nearly 200 articles, and among these, besides industrial and agricultural products, were cattle and meat. The law of 1815 forbade importation of foreign wheat when the price was less than 80 shillings per quarter of 8 Imperial bushels ($2.36 per U. S. bushel). (See CORN LAWS.) In 1823 several prohibitions of less importance were removed, and the whole system experienced a severe blow when, in 1824, the embargo on silk goods was replaced by a tariff of 30 per cent ad valorem. The last commercial embargoes disappeared from the English law in 1842..

There was no great general use of embargoes in Germany in the Middle Ages, but there were numerous restrictions upon foreign merchants. Embargoes were frequently directed by cities against their rivals. Employment of embargoes by the larger States became common in the eighteenth century. In Prussia, Frederick the Great utilized embargoes extensively. However, the system was weakened in Prussia and was finally abandoned in the laws of 1818.

In France, Colbert (see) employed few embargoes, but his general views were favorable to the policy of increasing population and employment. and keeping money at home. Various embargoes were imposed in 1669-1689. In the last year of this period occurred a general import prohibition upon printed cotton. Of special importance was the embargo upon nearly all English goods, which was instituted in 1701 and maintained until the commercial treaty of 1786. This treaty, however, remained in force but a few years, and the very moderate tariff of 1791 was practically supplanted by the decree of 1793, which absolutely prohibited a great number of textiles and other manufactures, and allowed importation of many commodities only when originating in a neutral country. These prohibitions were later made more strict.

The Continental Embargo, decreed against England by Napoleon in 1806, was more of a political than an economic measure. England retaliated by declaring a large part of the European Continent in a state of blockade, and numerous efforts were made by both belligerents to enforce a policy that was more or less impracticable. It is said that the obstructions to commerce occasioned thereby failed to bring prosperity to French industry. After 1813 the embargoes were gradually raised. After the peace settlement between France and England all the prohibitions, which originally were regarded as war measures, were incorporated in the French tariff of 1816, and this system, with few exceptions, remained in force until the commercial treaty with England in 1860. The French general tariff, however, contained many prohibitions until 1881.

The economic effects of commercial embargoes operate in the same direction as protection, but while protection gives domestic industry only a favored place in the home market, the embargo gives it a monopoly. Numerous embargoes are effected by administrative measures for the protec tion of health, morals, the prevention of agricultural and live-stock diseases, etc. These are discussed under PROTECTION, ADMINISTRATIVE (see).

During the recent European war extensive use was made of embargoes. For purposes of conserving shipping, imports were regulated and export embargoes, designed to prevent the depletion of domestic supplies, were instituted both by belligerent and neutral countries. Since the war most of these embargoes have been gradually removed, although for the exportation of essential products they are still maintained in a number of instances. (See also ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE.) In 1916 Congress enacted a provision--provoked by the restrictive measures of belligerent nations→→ which provided for retaliation against prohibitions of American imports into foreign countries. It reads as follows:

"That whenever any country, dependency, or colony shall prohibit the importation of any article the product of the soil or industry of the United States and not injurious to health or morals, the President shall have power to prohibit, during the period such prohibition is in force, the importation into the United States of similar articles, or in case the United States does not import similar articles from that country, then other articles, the products of such country, dependency, or colony." (See UNFAIR FOREIGN COMPETITION.)

The United States maintained during its participation in the European war a system of embargoes through the agency of the War Trade Board, both for imports and exports. The War Trade Board employed its powers after the war ended to control among other things the importation of dyestuffs. By the emergency tariff act (May 27, 1921) the War Trade Board was abolished. By the same act it was provided that certain chemicals and dyestuffs, especially those derived from coal-tar products. should for a period of three months be prohibited importation, unless it was determined that such article or a satisfactory substitute is not obtainable in the United States in sufficient quantities and on reasonable terms as to quality, price, delivery, etc. The time of the application of the act was later extended on August 24, 1921, for a period of three months and on November 16, 1921, until the tariff act of 1922 abolished embargoes for dyestuffs and related products otherwise provided by law.

In 1919 the British Board of Trade, acting by its war powers, established a trade licensing subcommittee. No intermediates and dyes could be imported from foreign countries except on license granted by this committee. In November, 1919. a court decision abolished this method of licensing.

On December 23, 1920, the dyestuffs act was passed, by which the importation of "all synthetic organic dyestuffs, colors, and coloring matters, and

1 Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Jens, 1911, vol. 3, pp. 629-636.

U. S. Dept. of State, List of Articles Embargoed by Neutral European Countries, Washington, Dec. 15, 1914; Great Britain, Board of Trade Journal, Nov. 27, 1919, p. 640.

3 Executive Order, No. 2729A, Oct. 12, 1917, under trading with the enemy act, approved Oct. 6, 1917, and the espionage act, approved June 15, 1917.

67th Cong., 1st sess., ch. 14, sec. 501 (42 Stat., 9, 18). 67th Cong., 1st sess., ch. 123 (42 Stat., 22).