hand looms, although the use of power looms for the pile mats has been introduced. In India, which is the leading source of imports, manufacture is by hand.

The harshness of the cocoa fiber has been an obstacle to the use of labor-saving machinery, and the industry is handicapped by labor conditions. At one time the production was carried on mainly by prison labor. This still obtains to some extent, but it has been greatly diminished by State legislation.

Matting made of rattan differs from cocoa matting in manufacture and raw material, Rattan is an East Indian and African creeping palm, the stem of which can be split into slender strands and woven into basketwork, chairs, couches, pillows, mats, and similar articles. In weaving rattan matting a simple bamboo framework is used, the operation being entirely handwork.

Production of cocoa mats and matting is included by the census in production figures for grass rugs and other articles and is therefore not obtainable separately. An inquiry made by the Tariff Commission discloses that there are four or five mills using power looms (also some hand looms), and that there are several additional firms making cocoa mats on hand looms, these being located chiefly in Michigan and Wisconsin and specializing largely on mats for automobiles. Practically no rattan mats or matting are made in the United States.

Imports of mats and matting steadily increased prior to 1915, but fell off sharply during 1916-1918. In 1914 imports of mats amounted to 1,545,449 square feet, valued at $139,419; and imports of matting to 114,987 square yards, valued at $34,863. Later imports are recorded as follows:

Year.

Exports.-None recorded.

Coconut meat is prepared for food purposes by shredding and artificial drying, either with or with out the addition of sugar. The domestic demand is made up of the package or household trade and confectioners for bulk goods. The package trade the requirements of manufacturing bakers and is supplied by domestic producers who manufac ture and pack shredded coconut from nuts imported from the West Indies and Central America. Unsweetened shredded coconut prepared in Ceylon enters largely into the bulk trade.

Production-Domestic production is estimated at from 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 pounds annually. Imports reached a total in 1914 of 9,307,924 pounds, valued at $742,701. This product comes chiefly from the British East Indies. Statistics of imports since 1917 are as follows:

Duty. Rate.

1923

45,585,823

3,745, 586

1,294, 148

45.00

Exports are not recorded.

4,974 1,488 29.92 31,546 3,670 11.63 48, 115 4,389 9.12 8,861 10.51 44,000 5, 412 12.30 25.33 22.68

COCONUTS. The coconut is a tropical fruit of a species of the palm tree. It fills an important place in the world's supply of food, especially in the Tropics. Coconut oil, produced from copra, the dried meat of the nut, is valuable for manufacture into soap, oleomargarine, and other products. Most of the whole nuts imported are used in the manufacture of shredded coconut for confectionery and culinary purposes.

Production in continental United States in 1919 was limited to the Florida crop of 613,000 nuts, valued at $43,000. Shipments in 1922 from Porto Rico to the United States were valued at $447,370.

Imports of coconut in the shell in 1914 were valued at $2,150,500, and in 1918 at $2,792,165. Of the 1922 importation, Jamaica furnished 23 per

COEFFICIENTS, FRENCH TARIFF. French customs duties are almost entirely specific, but the duties, of course, represent a certain percentage of the value of imported goods. Since 1914 prices of imported goods have risen considerably, in many instances to several times the pre-war values. With the tariff rates remaining constant this condition resulted in a considerable relative reduction in duties. The effect was not seriously felt during the war owing to import prohibitions and other restrictions on trade. After the war, however, France attempted to remedy the situation by imposing, in addition to the regular duties, ad valorem surtaxes. But, owing to the confusion and alleged misrepresentation of values by importers, the surtax method was abandoned in favor of a system of coefficients.

The coefficients represent the ratio between the values of imported goods before the war and at the present time. For example, if the price of an imported article has increased 2.5 times its pre-war price, the coefficient for that article will be 2.5, and the specific duty on that article will be multiplied by that number. The coefficients are intended to restore the relation between the duties

On these bases the amount to be paid for a certain article will be the product of the specific tax inscribed in the tariff multiplied by the coefficient of the said article.

*

* The Government will continue to watch closely the quotations on merchandise and will not fail, should occasion arise, to reduce the rate of the coefficients of increase. To this end an interministerial commission will be formed, charged with the preparation of the periodical revision of the table of coefficients, so that the latter may represent as nearly as possible the ratio between the present and pre-war values." The system of coefficients has now been largely abandoned. (See also TARIFF HISTORY, FRANCE; AD VALOREM AND SPECIFIC DUTY; TARIFF, LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE: FRANCE.)

COFFEE. Coffees are characterized as "strong" and "mild," with subclasses. The product of Brazil is strong, and that of all other countries mild. Strong coffees are chiefly consumed in the United States; Europe prefers the mild types. Production.-In 1919 Porto Rico yielded approximately 53,000,000 pounds and Hawaii about 20,000,000 pounds. Later statistics show that production of coffee in Porto Rico is declining. Under the most favorable conditions these island's could hardly produce one-fourth of the 1,000,000,000 pounds required for domestic consumption. Most of the Porto Rican product is shipped to Cuba and Europe. American consumers prefer other varieties. Of the world production, about 2,500,000,000 pounds, Brazil supplies over two-thirds. Through valorization the Government of Brazil exercises a controlling influence over the markets of the world.

Imports of coffee, about three-fourths of which come from Brazil, exceed 1,000,000,000 pounds, valued at about $100,000,000. The bulk of the Colombian and Venezuelan product is exported to this country and used for blending purposes. Imports for the years 1918-1923 are shown below (000 omitted):

Survey FL-16.

(See also ACORNS.)

1918

1920* 1922

1923

43,031 34,785 25,493 $6,365 $9,224 $4,819

24,714 $4,802

1,695 1,972 1,257 $296 $579 $328

1,652

$429

COINS are stamped pieces of metal used as media of exchange. The metals most commonly used are gold, silver, and copper. As the coins of different peoples usually vary in size, inscriptions, etc., they circulate in international trade only to a limited extent, trade balances between nations being adjusted mainly by gold and silver bullion. Production.-No statistics.

Imports of coins in 1914 were valued at $89,064. Prior to 1914 coins came mainly from Germany and England. Imports in the years 1918-1921 were unimportant. Imports in 1922 were valued at approximately $16,000; and in 1923 at $40,711.

Exports of United States coins in 1914 were valued at $7,208. Nearly all the exports went to Cuba. No exports are recorded for later years. Survey G-31.

COIR or coconut fiber is a coarse and stiff but elastic fiber obtained from the fibrous shell of the coconut produced in Ceylon, British India, and other tropical or semitropical countries. For the preparation of the fiber, the unripe nuts are steeped in sea water for several months, after which the fruit is beaten and washed away with water. The residual reddish brown fibrous mass is decorticated by tearing and hackling into fibers about 10 inches in length. The coarsest fibers go into brushes; those that are very short and curly are used for packing and upholstery stuffing; the longest are spun (usually by hand) into coir yarn, for use in making matting and cordage.

Production.-Coir, a tropical product, is not produced in the United States. British India is the main producer of coir and coir yarn. That country's statistics show, for the year ended March 31, 1920, total exports of unmanufactured coir to have been 789,152 pounds, valued at about $34,000, of which over half went to the United Kingdom and about 3 per cent to the United States. In the same year British India exported manufactured coir (excluding rope) to the extent of about 38,000 tons, valued at about $4,156,000, three-fourths of which went to the United Kingdom and about 8 per cent to the United States.

Imports in the fiscal year 1914 of coir or cocoa fiber were 1,095,360 pounds, valued at $13,114; and of coir yarn 8,554,032 pounds, valued at $391,496. Imports are largely from British India. Since 1917 they have been as follows:

Coir yarn.

Exports of green coffee are almost entirely from Porto Rico. Some Hawaiian coffee moves to Canada and to Asia. Exports from Porto Rico in 1923 were 16,800,000 pounds and from Hawaii, approximately 4,500,000 pounds. Exports of roasted coffees are chiefly to Canada and Mexico, and to markets wherein the United States has preferential treatment-Cuba, the Philippines,

COKE. See COAL AND COKE.

COLBERT, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1619-1683), minister under Louis XIV of France and leading exponent of Mercantilism (see). Colbert sought to promote the economic interests of the nation by extensive State regulation and encouragement. Under his direction the State assumed supervision over all branches of economic activity. While the measures adopted were beneficial to many lines of industry, excessive governmental interference is said to have hampered and discouraged both production and trade in some lines.

Colbert encouraged agriculture by reduction of taxes, by certain bounties (see) on the exportation of meat, by improvement in the laws protecting farm animals from seizure, by efficient forest administration. He labored for the improvement of live stock and ordered the draining of marshes. The great minister impaired his own efforts, however, by prohibiting the export of grain, except after extraordinary harvests, and by imposing many annoying regulations. The latter measures rendered grain prices so uncertain and usually maintained them at so low a level that agriculture languished.

In the development of industries France made great progress under Colbert. By the use of money and other means he succeeded in obtaining foreign industrial secrets, as well as the best foreign workmen, engineers, and artists to assist in the creation of new manufactures. At the same time he severely punished Frenchmen who tried to transfer their industrial knowledge to foreign soil. He encouraged home industry by monopolies, bounties, and privileges. He established a great system of technical schools, museums, and art academies, and sent missions into foreign lands to study their methods. He constructed many buildings of notable architectural value. Science and poetry were encouraged and theaters and scientific academies founded. Colbert also organized a council of commerce, a kind of industrial parliament to advise in matters of industry. The result of these measures was that in a short time the French cloths had no rivals in Europe; tin, steel, porcelain, morocco leather, which had always been imported, were manufactured in France; the linens and serges of Holland, the laces and velvets of Genoa, the carpets of Persia and Turkey, were not only imitated but equaled. Finer glass was made at Paris than at Venice, and the tapestries of Flanders were surpassed by the royal factories. Much of France's present leadership in artistic work is traceable to this period.

But Colbert's interference prevented the industrial prosperity that might have been expected. He was alarmed and irritated to find that in certain markets the products of the French factories were not welcomed and were regarded as deficient in quality as compared with those of the rivals of France. To alter this condition, he said, the manufacturers must be schooled by the State. The industries of France were nearly all in the hands of trade guilds, and it was through these that Colbert brought the influence of the State to bear on the manufacturers. Edicts and regulations followed one another by the score; methods of construction with details as to the size, color,

1 Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, Paris, 1895, Vol. V., pp. 232-234.

Oncken, August, Geschichte der Nationalökonomie, 1902, pp. 165-166. Duruy, Victor, A History of France, New York, 1920, p.422.

and quality of manufactured articles were promulgated. Inspectors were sent about the country to enforce these regulations."

The manufacturers and cities resisted; the inspectors and governors insisted. The struggle between administrative regulation and the industrial interests continued until the death of the minister, and industry, depressed by various conditions, was less prosperous in 1682 than in 1672. Instead of satisfying customers, manufacturers were compelled to follow State regulations, and thus could not maintain their trade."

With respect to customs duties Colbert removed many of the interior tariffs and other restrictions between Provinces. He desired free trade throughout the Kingdom and protective duties on the frontier. Protection, however, according to Colbert, is only a crutch to be used till industry can support itself. In 1664 he placed import duties on products domestically manufactured and export duties on raw materials. Colbert also sought by tariffs to injure rival countries. He entertained the theory that their loss was the gain of France. In 1667 a much higher tariff was proclaimed, es+ pecially harmful to Holland. This led to reprisals by that country and finally to war, in 1672. The war caused much suffering to France. The tariff was finally repealed and the law of 1664 readopted. Colbert established bonded warehouses in the French ports, where, in case of reexportation, duties already paid should be refunded, and granted free passage for foreign__merchandise through all the Provinces. (See WAREHOUSES, CUSTOMS.)

He also endeavored to promote commerce by chartering trading companies, similar to those which were successfully operating from Holland and England. But these companies were compelled to conform to the political and religious restrictions of France, and were a failure.

Closely connected with the commercial companies were the colonies of France, and their. fortunes during the administration of Colbert were much affected by the state of the former. France possessed excellent bases for colonization in Canada, Louisiana, and the West Indian Islands, and made a promising beginning in Madagascar, Ceylon, and India. But though Colbert, realized to the full the possibilities of these colonial establishments, he interfered too much, and his interference was even more dangerous at so great a distance from France than it was in France itself. The spirit of religious intolerance, which struck a heavy blow against his enterprises at home, ruined those abroad. The only thing that could have, served the French colonies was liberty; and of this Colbert, with all his vast gifts and powers, never knew the value."

French shipping at the beginning of Colbert's ministry was insignificant. Foreigners had engrossed all the maritime commerce, even the coasting trade. Of 25,000 ships in Europe, the Dutch had 15,000 or 16,000, and the French, at most, only 500 or 600. Colbert's predecessor had established anchorage dues of 50 sous (6 or 7 francs) a ton on foreign ships, payable on entering and leaving French ports. Colbert retained this duty, which

was for the French marine almost what the navigation acts (see) were for the English. He granted to national ships bounties on exportations and importations, and encouraged the builders of ships intended for ocean navigation by other bounties. The merchant marine, thus stimulated and protected, developed rapidly. In order to keep the commerce of the colonies under the national flag, Colbert closed colonial ports to all foreign ships. (See also SHIPPING DISCRIMINATIONS.)

COLCOTHAR. See IRON OXIDES. COLLAR BUTTONS. See BUTTONS. COLLARD SEED. See SEEDS, ETC. COLLARS AND CUFFS. See LINEN. COLLECTOR OF CUSTOMS is the chief administrative officer of the customs district.

Collectors of customs are charged with the collection of the customs revenue and the enforcement of the customs revenue laws, the neutrality laws, and such other laws as they may be directed to enforce by the Secretary of the Treasury. The instructions, decisions, and regulations of the Secretary of the Treasury are binding on collectors. They are also charged with the administration of the laws relating to the documenting of vessels and to commerce and navigation, and with certain functions under the immigration laws; and the instructions and decisions of the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of Labor, respectively, in relation to the administration of such laws are binding upon collectors.

Collectors report to the Solicitor of the Treasury all suits upon customs bonds, actions by the United States for the collection of duties, and actions brought against them for acts done or moneys collected in the performance of their duty.

(See also CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE; CUSTOMS LAW, U. S. Secs. 401, 501, 513, 514, 517, 560, 599, 600, 601, 604, and 620; CUSTOMS OFFICERS.)

COLONIAL TARIFF POLICIES.2 A discussion of colonial tariff policies will be facilitated by a brief historical outline of the development of modern colonies, together with a summary of their salient political, geographic, and economic features.

Development of Present Colonial Empires. Modern colonial development may be divided into three periods. FIRST PERIOD: The first period began in the latter half of the fifteenth century, when the Portuguese advanced their explorations along the west coast of Africa and around the Cape of Good Hope to India, while Spanish expeditions crossed the Atlantic and discovered the Americas. Somewhat later the Dutch developed an extensive marine power, and took from the Portuguese most of the Spice Islands, including Ceylon. By the end of the sixteenth century they had settlements in Guiana and the Cape of Good Hope.

Somewhat tardy in their entry, France and Great Britain overcame the handicap of a late start, and by the eighteenth century became the leading colonial rivals. To them in the second half of the

seventeenth century the Dutch lost much of their carrying trade.3 Between 1756 and 1815 Great Britain took Canada, India, and various minor colonies from France, and from Holland practically all the latter's colonial possessions (the Spice Islands were later restored), losing in the same period thirteen American colonies.

France in 1803 sold the Louisiana Territory, all that remained of her North American colonies, to the United States. A little later Brazil declared its independence of Portugal, and virtually all 5 of South and of Central America established its independence of Spain. This left Great Britain the foremost of colonial powers.

Throughout all early periods colonial rivalry was dominated by the theories and practices of Mercantilism (see). Although there was some settlement colonization in America and at the Cape, the chief object of early colonial enterprise was the acquisition of precious metals; and where these were not obtainable spices. silks, sugar, or slaves were taken for the purpose of exchange for money. African and Asiatic colonies" were mere trading stations, and even English conquests in India amounted simply to the occupation of areas tributary to the ports and required for their strategic safeguarding. With certain exceptions, chiefly at the beginning and at the end of the period, monopolies were the order of the day. If the State did not keep the trade in its own hands (as in the case of Portugal). it granted monopolies to chartered companies or. later, excluded from the trade all but its own nationals. The principle of monopoly applied to all phases of the colonial trade-to the colony as a market, to the colony as a source of raw materials or commercial luxuries, and to the carrying trade between colony and mother country. The monopoly was fortified not by differential tariffs but by absolute prohibitions and was relaxed only gradually, mainly by commercial treaties.

a

SECOND PERIOD: The six decades from the end of the Napoleonic wars to about 1875 form a second period in colonial history. Then, as consequence of various circumstances, the colonial powers loosened, in different degrees and with unequal promptitude, their restrictions on colonial trade." At the same time, and in somewhat the same measure, the general interest in colonies declined. The anticolonial movement developed its greatest strength in Great Britain; but among the other colonial powers, with the exception of France, indifference and inaction prevailed. Under Louis Philippe (18301848) France acquired Algeria and various islands of Oceania. Napoleon III (1852-1870) directed the acquisition of Cochin-China. Cambodia, and New Caledonia, extended the French hold on western equatorial Africa, and made some treaties with the natives of Madagascar. The British, frequently in conflict with those living in Africa and India. extended their sway somewhat in south and west Africa and on a considerable scale in India, in spite of adverse resolutions of Parliament and of the directors of the East India Company. During this period Great Britain conceded “responsible self-government to the settlement colonies, restored the native government of Mysore, acknowl

This was the consequence much more of the enforcement of French and English navigation acts than of the wars of the period. Except some relatively unimportant islands. Except the Guianas and British Honduras.