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astronomical telegrams; dynamical astronomy and astronomical tables; meridian circle observations, including the study of atmospheric refraction; optical investigations, both theoretical and applied, relating to astronomical problems and the physical study of instruments; solar radiation; registration of the velocities of solar vapors; the solar atmosphere; expeditions for the observation of eclipses and othe. astronomical phenomena; standards of wave-length and solar spectrum tables; solar rotation; physical observations of planets; nomenclature of lunar phenomena; determination of longitudes by wireless telegraphy; variation of latitude; minor planets; comets; meteors; the International Chart of the Heavens; stellar parallaxes; stellar photometry; double stars; variable stars; nebulæ; classification of stellar spectra; stellar radial velocities; time standards and determinations; and the reform of the calendar. This bare enumeration can give little conception of the importance of the work of the Astronomical Union, but if it were feasible in the available space to outline the work of some of these committees, and to indicate the advantages that must result from a combined attack on astronomical problems, in which the ablest investigators will utilize the instrumental resources of scores of great observatories in accordance with a general plan of operations, the true possibilities of such united effort would become obvious.

The scope of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics is no less comprehensive. Its objects are to encourage the study of problems relating to the figure and physics of the earth, to initiate and coördinate investigations requiring the coöperation of several countries, and to facilitate special investigations, such as the inter-comparison of instruments. The Union is constituted of six Sections, dealing with (1) Geodesy, (2) Seismology, (3) Meteorology, (4) Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, (5) Physical Oceanography, (6) Volcanology. Each of these Sections appoints special international committees, similar to those of the Astronomical Union,

to organize coöperative researches in their respective fields. Action has necessarily been delayed in some of the Sections, but a preliminary list of projects already initiated by the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity will serve to indicate the character of the coöperative work to be undertaken in this branch of the Union. These involve the comparison of the magnetic instruments in use in different countries, and the determination of the best method of measuring the magnetic elements in absolute units; the study of atmospheric electricity by a joint committee of the Section of Meteorology and the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity; coöperation with the proposed International Union of Scientific RadioTelegraphy in the investigation of the electric phenomena of the higher atmosphere; the systematic exchange of magnetic curves; the appointment from time to time of special committees to investigate and report on specific problems in the field of the Section; and coöperation with the International Astronomical Union in investigating the relationships between solar and terrestrial magnetic and electrical phenomena.

The American branch of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics was organized by the Division of Physical Sciences of the National Research Council. Out of this has grown the American Geophysical Union, which officially represents the United States in the International Union and retains organic connection with the Division of Physical Sciences.

The rapid development of chemistry in recent years, and the limitless variety of its applications in the arts have led to a great advance in the public appreciation of this branch of science. The possibilities of international coöperation in chemical research are at least as great as in astronomy and geophysics, but prior to the war only a beginning had been made in utilizing them. The organization of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, in which the United States is represented by the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technology of the National Research Council, supplies the means

of securing the coöperation of chemists engaged both in fundamental investigations and in industrial research.

The objects of this Union are to provide for permanent cooperation between the chemical societies of the nations represented, to coördinate their scientific and technical procedure, and to contribute to the advancement of chemistry in all of its aspects.

The first task to be undertaken by authority of this Union will be the preparation and publication, under American auspices, of a critical compendium of physical and chemical constants, as part of the contribution of the United States toward an international program of documentation which will be developed as rapidly as possible. The National Research Council, with the support of the American Chemical Society and other national societies, has been requested to organize the editorial board and secure funds for this large project, which will naturally involve considerable expense. This board, while charged with complete responsibility, will conduct the work on an international basis, with the aid of assistant editors and collaborators in the principal nations of the International Union. Other large coöperative projects will be taken up later. The International Research Council provides the longdesired means of coördinating the activities of international scientific bodies, which in the past have almost invariably worked independently a condition no longer possible if real efficiency is to be expected. Similar confusion has prevailed in each of the participating countries, where no agency has existed to bring together men engaged in different classes of international research. In the United States this difficulty has been overcome by the organization of the Division of Foreign Relations of the National Research Council. This division, the organization of which is more fully described on page 424, acts for the National Research Council in dealings with the International Research Council, promotes coöperation in matters of common. interest between the American National Committees or other

national representatives of international organizations, aids in the initiation of new international unions, keeps the State Department in touch with pending scientific and technical questions in which the Government may be interested, and publishes annual summaries of international activities in science and technology.

If space permitted, it would be interesting to survey the work of other important international organizations in which the United States takes a prominent part, such as the International Electrotechnical Commission, the International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, the International Commission of Illumination, and of such bodies as the National Research Council Committee on Pacific Exploration, whose projects are of international scale. Since it is manifestly impossible, however, to cover such extensive ground, this chapter has been confined to a sketch of some developments resulting from the war which have led to a new and promising unification of research activities, in harmony with the spirit of the times.

XXIV

THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

UNTIL

JAMES R. ANGELL

NTIL the organization of the National Research Council, scientific research in the United States had been carried on by a group of agencies working for the most part in independence of one another. Research in pure science has been chiefly cultivated in the universities and in a small group of privately endowed research institutes. The scientific bureaus of the Federal Government and certain of the scientific agencies of the several states have from time to time devoted themselves to investigations in this field; but in the main, they have almost inevitably been monopolized by problems of applied science possessing the urgency of pressing practical necessity. The sum total of the scientific work carried on by these state and federal agencies (e. g., the federal Department of Agriculture, the state experiment stations, state geological surveys, etc.) has been very large, and its significance for the welfare of the public has been of the highest consequence. The research aspects of applied science have also been represented to some extent in the industrial laboratories of the country, certain of which have been developed to a very high degree of efficiency, although the number of such laboratories is lamentably small when compared with the need and the opportunity.

Merely to state the foregoing facts is to suggest the valid conclusion that the best results in research can never accrue under conditions so lacking in unity and coherence of purpose. The National Research Council, created by the relentless pressure of the war, is endeavoring to secure in times of peace the

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