Transylvania, which was promoted by Honterus, a disciple of Melanchthon, who is said to have been in intimate correspondence with Luther, and to have also established the earliest printing press here (1533), its first productions being the Augsburg Confession and Luther's writings. Here, too, the first paper mill was erected. Kronstadt was formerly surrounded by strong fortifications, which are now in ruins. Northeast of the town is a small citadel, situated on the summit of an isolated hill, which was not without importance in the Hungarian war of 1848-'9.

KROO, or Kru, a negro race on the W. coast of Africa, whose territory extends from Cape Mesurado, on the right shore of the river St. Paul, to St. Andreas, a district generally known as the Pepper coast. According to a legend current among the Mandingos and Foolahs, the Kroos were driven by them out of the interior of central Africa. Their neighbors, the Avekvom, who extend as far as the river Assinie, are supposed to be ethnologically closely related to them. They are the so-called Kroomen, who are employed as sailors, boatmen, storemen, and sometimes as mechanics, and in whom a traffic is carried on by the factors and shipmasters on the coast. (See LIBERIA.)

KROTOSCHIN (Pol. Krotoszyn), a town of Prussia, capital of a circle, in the province and 52 m. S. E. of the city of Posen; pop. in 1871, 7,866, including over 2,000 Jews. It contains places of worship for Roman Catholics. Protestants, and Jews, and gives title to a mediatized principality which was conferred in 1819 upon Prince Thurn and Taxis, on the relinquishment of a portion of his postal monopoly. The trade in wool is considerable, and cloth, chiccory, tobacco, and other articles are manufactured here.

KROZET, or Crozet, a group of four small islands in the Indian ocean, between Kerguelen and Prince Edward islands, of volcanic origin, and composed chiefly of large rocks. Possession island, the largest of the four, is 20 m. long and 10 m. broad, with three bays, of which America bay is most frequented by sealers, who subsist on albatross eggs and the flesh of the young albatross, on wild ducks, goats' flesh, and the tongue and flippers of the sea elephant. It contains some patches of land, and as the temperature is rarely very low, it is believed that potatoes and vegetables would thrive. Penguin or Inaccessible island, a mere rock, derives its names from its inaccessibility, and from the abundance of penguins. Pigs' island, the most western of the group, which is less desolate, was so named from the pigs left there in 1834, which have increased to such an extent that they overrun the whole island, and afford abundant food for the sailors. The most eastern, in lat. 47° S., lon. 48° E., is known as East island, and is about 1 m. in diameter and 4,000 ft. high, with precipices rising in some places perpendicularly from its shores. The Krozet islands were select

ed in 1874 as an American and British station for the observation of the transit of Venus. KRÜDENER, Juliane de Vietinghoff, baroness, a Russian novelist and mystic, born in Riga, Nov. 21, 1764, died in Karasu-Bazar, Crimea, Dec. 25, 1824. She was carefully educated in the house of her father, Baron Vietinghoff, one of the wealthiest proprietors in Livonia, and was early remarkable for intelligence and for a tendency to revery and melancholy. In 1777 she visited Paris with her parents, and on her return at the age of 18 was married to a Russian diplomatist, Baron Krüdener, whom in 1784 she accompanied to Venice and other cities of Italy, and afterward to Copenhagen and Paris; and in 1791 she made a journey through the south of France. Of a singularly naïve and romantic character, she was guilty of numerous indiscretions, which led to a separation from her husband in 1791. After an adventurous life, with a reputation for beauty and wit, in various cities of Europe, she went to Paris in 1803 with literary schemes. Her romance Valérie appeared in that year, marked by a vague melancholy and light and graceful style, which, with the support of her friends, secured it a brilliant success. Returning to Riga, and remaining for a time in retirement, she resolved to change her manner of life, and to devote herself solely to the conversion of sinners and the consolation of the wretched. In this pious design she was confirmed by travelling in Germany, by correspondence with the Moravian Brethren, and by an acquaintance with the theosophist Jung-Stilling. Her correspondence for several years abounds in mystical effusions, more elegant though less profound than those of Mme. Guyon, and reveals her double tendency to illuminism and to worldly frivolity. At Paris in 1814 she held religious assemblies in her house, which were frequented by the most important personages. Her spiritual exaltation assumed the character of prevision, and in a letter she foretold in vague terms the escape of Napoleon from Elba, his triumphant return to Paris, and the second exile of the Bourbons. This letter was communicated to the emperor Alexander of Russia, in whom it awakened great interest toward her, and whom she met at Heilbronn in May, 1815, and accompanied to Heidelberg, the headquarters of the allies, and after the battle of Waterloo to Paris. She was present at the grand review of the Russian army in the plain of Châlons, which she described under the title of the Camp des vertus (1815). The articles of the holy alliance are said to have been submitted to her revision. Her doctrines, agreeing with the forms of no Christian communion, caused several of the German states to forbid her residence in them. She passed the latter part of her life among the poor and the sick, manifesting an unwearied ardor, and joyously sacrificing herself for the solace of the wretched. In 1818 she returned to Russia, where the emperor continued his

sides great quantities of finished articles. The works are connected with the main Rhenish railway lines, and contain more than 30 m. of rail tracks to facilitate the traffic, and there are 30 telegraph stations in the establishment. About 12,000 men are employed here, besides 5,000 in the mines and smelting works, and others in other departments, making a total of about 20,000. Krupp has built for his officers and men good dwelling houses and hospitals. A sick, burial, and pension fund had an income in 1873 of $80,000, and the expenditures amounted to about $60,000. Another fund secures free medical attendance upon an annual payment of 75 cents. The works at Essen in 1874 included 1,100 smelting and other furnaces, 275 coke ovens, 264 smiths' forges, 300 steam boilers, 71 steam hammers, including a monster hammer similar to Nasmyth's, 286 steam engines with an aggregate of 10,000 horse power, 1,056 machine tools, a chemical laboratory, and photographic, lithographic, and printing and bookbinding establishments. A fire brigade of 70 men acts also as a police force, besides 166 watchmen. The consumption of coal in 1872 was 500,000 tons; coke, 125,000 tons; gas, 155,000,000 cubic feet, for 16,500 burners. The articles manufactured include guns, gun carriages, shot, boiler plates, rolls, spring steel, machinery, axles, wheels, rails, and springs for railways and mines, and shafts for steamers. Krupp was the first to introduce unwelded cast-steel tires for use on railways. He owns extensive coal and iron mines in various parts of Germany, besides having concessions of iron mines in Spain. His smelting works, chiefly on the Rhine, contain nearly 300 coke ovens, and annually produce 120,000 tons of pig iron. He accepted the title of privy commercial councillor, but in 1864 declined patents of nobility. To the Vienna exhibition of 1873 he sent remarkable specimens, comprising siege guns and other pieces of artillery, and ammunition. In 1874 he received so many orders from various governments that he negotiated a loan of 12,000,000 thalers for

the extension of his works.

KRUSENSTERN, Adam Johann von, a Russian navigator, born at Haggud, Esthonia, Nov. 19, 1770, died in Esthonia, Aug. 24, 1846. From 1793 to 1799 he was in the English service. During the reign of Alexander I. he was made a captain in the Russian navy, and placed in command of a scientific and commercial expedition planned by himself, which sailed from Cronstadt in the summer of 1803, to explore the north Pacific coasts of America and Asia. It was described by Espenburg, Lisianskoi, Langsdorff, Tilesius, and in part by Krusenstern himself, in his Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803-'6 (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1810-'12), which has been translated into many languages English translation by Hoppner, London, 1813; French, 1821). He was made curator of the university of Dorpat in 1824, vice admiral in 1829, and admiral in 1841.

KRYLOFF, or Kriloff, Ivan, a Russian author, born in Moscow, Feb. 13, 1768, died in St. Petersburg, Nov. 21, 1844. While a boy he wrote several comedies, and having obtained a place as clerk in one of the public offices, he devoted his leisure to study. In 1801, having been recommended to the empress Maria, he became secretary to Prince Gallitzin. This office, however, was purely honorary, and he spent several years at the country house of the prince, engaged in literary labors. In 1812 he received an appointment in the imperial library, and in 1830 he was made councillor of state. He wrote plays, and contributed to various journals and periodicals, but was most successful in writing fables in imitation of those of La Fontaine. They were collected and published in numerous editions of various styles, cheap and expensive, and are as common in Russian households as the "Pilgrim's Progress" is in England. They were translated into French by several of his friends (Paris, 1825), and have been translated repeatedly into several modern languages. The best translation in French is by Einerling (Paris, 1845); in English, by Ralston (London, 1871); and in German, by Löwe (Leipsic, 1874).

KUBAN, a territory of European Russia, in Ciscaucasia, and in the lieutenancy of Caucasia; area, 36,251 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 672,224, including nearly 100,000 Mohammedans, the rest being chiefly members of the national church. It is the most populous and extensive region of Ciscaucasia, comprising the territories of the Cossacks in the district (oblast) of Kuban (pop. over 300,000) and in their Transkubanian districts (pop. over 100,000), besides various tracts of land inhabited by different tribes and some almost desert regions on the Black sea. It is divided into several circles, and contains small towns. The Cossacks are under the authority of a lieutenant general. Capital, Yekaterinodar. (See CAUCASUS.) The principal river is the Kuban, which rises in Circassia at the foot of Mount Elbruz, and after a N., N. W., and W. course of about 500 m. falls into a bay of the Black sea. It has a number of small tributaries, and is navigable only for the smallest craft.

KUBLAI KHAN, called in Chinese SHE-TSU and HU-PE-LI, the founder of the 20th or Mongol dynasty of Chinese emperors, born in the earlier part of the 13th century, died in Peking in 1294. He was the grandson of Genghis Khan, under whom the conquest of China had been commenced. A branch of the great Tartar family, known in Chinese history as the oriental Tartars, had harassed the feeble and debauched princes of the Sung dynasty, then governing the principal provinces of China, to such an extent that Li-sung, the reigning emperor about 1250, called in the western Tartars, of whom Kublai Khan was sovereign, to drive out the oriental invaders. This effected, Kublai Khan established himself in China, and in 1260 assumed the title of emperor of that country. The Sung dynasty, though unable to

make any effective resistance, continued to maintain a nominal existence till 1279, when it was extinguished. Kublai Khan now entered vigorously upon the administration of his empire. Assisted by three wise ministers, Yao-tchu, Hing-heng, and Teou-mo, he reformed the army and the administration of civil affairs, reorganized the tribunals of mathematics and astronomy, and called to his court men of letters from all countries, among them the Venetian merchant Marco Polo. He organized an expedition for the conquest of Japan, but a part of his fleet was overwhelmed by a violent tempest, and the remainder destroyed by the Japanese. The discontent of the nobles and the people at this untoward result admonished the emperor to seek conquests in directions where they might be more easily won, and he subjected to his sway Tonquin and Cochin China, and reigned as emperor from the Arctic sea to the straits of Malacca, and from the Yellow sea to the Euxine. He seems to have been, for his time and his country, a ruler of extraordinary ability and integrity.

KUENLUN, or Kulkun, a mountain range of central Asia, forming the N. boundary of Thibet, and separating it from East Turkistan, the desert of Gobi, and the Koko-nor territory. It runs from W. to E. on or near the parallel of 36° N., until near lon. 92° E. it is broken by the irregular mountain groups around Lake Koko-nor. The Nan-shan and Kilian-shan ranges may be considered as its eastern prolongations. At the W. end it is connected with the Hindoo Koosh, near its union with which it is attached on the north to the Belur Tagh, a great chain running N. and S. along the E. frontier of Independent Tartary. The Karakorum range, with which the Kuenlun is often said to be linked, is really a distinct branch of the Himalaya. The loftiest summits attain a height of 22,000 ft. The mountain of Shinkhieu in the Kuenlun chain is remarkable for a cavern emitting continual flames which diffuse for some distance an agreeable odor, probably from naphtha; it is not a volcano, but a fire spring. The highest watershed, according to the brothers Schlagintweit, who crossed the Kuenlun in 1856, is near the Karakorum pass, the elevation of which is 18,345 ft. The rivers Yarkand and Karakash take their rise near this pass.

KUGLER, Franz Theodor, a German author, born in Stettin, Jan. 19, 1808, died in Berlin, March 18, 1858. His Skizzenbuch (1830) contained original compositions in poetry, music, and linear design, and in 1833 he published with Reinick a Liederbuch für deutsche Künstler. The history of medieval art, however, occupied him chiefly, and after a visit to Italy for the purpose of collecting materials, he published in 1837 his Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei von Konstantin dem Grossen bis auf die neuere Zeit (2 vols.), the most comprehensive treatise on the subject which has yet appeared. The approbation with which

the work was received caused it to be almost immediately translated into the leading languages of Europe. In England it appeared in three separate parts, of which that relating to the Italian schools was translated by Lady Eastlake, with notes by Sir Charles Eastlake; and those comprehending the German, Dutch, and Flemish schools, and the French and Spanish schools, were edited by Sir E. W. Head. Kugler also published works on "The Polychromy of Greek Architecture and Sculpture, and its Limits," the "Art Treasures in Berlin and Potsdam," "History of Architecture," "Schinkel, the Influence of his Theories of Art," &c. He was almost equally industrious in other walks of literature, having published a History of Frederick the Great," illustrated by Menzel, a 'Modern History of Prussia," a volume of poems, and several successful dramas. From the year 1833 he was professor of the history of art in the royal academy of Berlin, and for 20 years lectured in the university of Frederick William.

KUHN, Adalbert, a German philologist, born at Königsberg, Brandenburg, Nov. 19, 1812. He studied in Berlin under Bopp, Böckh, and Lachmann, and became in 1841 teacher and in 1856 professor at the gymnasium of Cologne. He acquired celebrity in comparative philology and as the founder of the science of comparative Indo-Germanic mythology. His principal works are: Zur ältesten Geschichte der indogermanischen Völker (Berlin, 1845; enlarged in Weber's Indische Studien, Berlin, 1850); Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks (1859); and Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westphalen (2 vols., Leipsic, 1859). He is the editor of a periodical devoted to the comparative philology of the French, Greek, and Latin, and edits with Schleicher a similar publication relating to the East-Aryan, Celtic, and Slavic languages. He has written numerous essays for these periodicals, and many on German mythology and legends in other regions.

KÜHNE, Gustav, a German novelist, born in Magdeburg, Dec. 27, 1806. He graduated as doctor of philosophy in Berlin, and has published several novels, of which his Klosternovellen (Leipsic, 1838) and Die Rebellen von Irland (1840) are the best. His Deutsche Männer und Frauen (Leipsic, 1851) is one of his most popular works. He has since published Skizzen deutscher Städte und Landschaften, and a novel entitled Missionär und Proselyt. He belongs to the "Young Germany" school of politicians and writers, and has done much to promote the establishment of kindergartens after the plan of Froebel, and published on the subject Fröbel's Tod und der Fortbestand seiner Lehre (Liebenstein, 1852). He purchased from Lewald the magazine Europa in 1846, and continued it till 1859. In 1852 he removed to Dresden. His recent publications comprise Mein Tagebuch in bewegter Zeit (Leipsic, 1863), and a collection of his works (7 vols., 1862-'6).