The ing off 1,000 sheets an hour of any size. principle, however, is the same as that of the hand press. The quality of the paper is a matter that requires attention. If it contain any gritty substances, it will soon act upon the stone; plaster in its composition soon causes the lines to be clogged; and alum attacks the gum and ruins the drawing. The printer should be able to appreciate the character of the work in hand, for upon his manner of applying the ink the general tone of the impressions may in great part depend. Their perfection is also in part due to the condition of the paper as to proper amount of moisture, and to the manner of regulating the press.-Lith pressure being applied, the ink adheres to the stone, for which it has a strong affinity. The back of the paper being moistened, the gum is loosened, when the sheet is readily removed, and the remaining gum is washed off with water. The stone is then treated precisely as though the drawing had been originally made upon it. The transfer process is also used to multiply copies for printing of the original drawing, and also to produce copies of engravings to be printed lithographically. For this purpose an impression from the original plate is taken upon transfer paper in transfer ink, which is composed mainly of the same ingredients as the chalk, only reduced to a semifluid state by oil or some other liquid. Theography was introduced into Vienna in 1802, number of copies which can be taken from a into Rome and London in 1807, and into Paris single lithographic drawing varies greatly. A in 1814. Everywhere it met with great favor, fine crayon drawing will give from 500 to 3,000 and especially in Paris. Artists of distinction good impressions; an ink drawing about twice practised and aided to perfect it; and it was as many; while from drawings produced by fashionable for the nobility to design on stone. the photolithographic process, described fur- Lemercier cultivated the art with the most disther on, as many as 30,000 have been obtained. tinguished and long continued success. He It is customary to make one or more transfers, invented the autolithographic or transfer pawhich can be substituted for the original draw- per; and at the Paris exhibition of 1855 the ing when worn out. Plates of metal, espe- medal of honor was awarded to Lemercier, cially of zinc, are sometimes used instead of who was then conducting a large establishment stone, and in the same manner; but stone is containing more than 100 presses and employing generally preferred. Stone is also frequently about 200 workmen. Count de Lasteyrie inemployed as a material upon which to engrave, vented the method of facsimile printing, appliin the same manner as upon a copper plate, cable to obtaining copies of characters that only the lines are cut with a diamond point in- cannot easily be brought into ordinary typogstead of a graver. For maps and plans this raphy, and also to maps in which all the details succeeds very well, the work being nearly as are lithographic, while the names of places are good, and the cost much less. Engraving upon first produced upon the paper by ordinary printstone, however, does not properly come under ing. Engelmann by his knowledge of chemisthe head of lithography, the printing being per- try was able to give a great impulse to the art formed as with copper plates, and not in the of lithographic printing in colors, or chromomanner now to be described. Lithographic lithography. Full treatises upon lithography printing is a process partly chemical and partly were published in 1819 by Count Raucourt and mechanical. The ink used is the ordinary print- Senefelder. In England its productions have er's ink, composed essentially of linseed oil been of a high order, especially in landscapes; and lamp black, in a semi-fluid state, although and the establishment of the Ackermanns in other ingredients are usually added. (See London was long famous for the fine speciINK.) The lithographic hand press consists of mens it furnished in this department, inclua roller revolving upon its pivots in an up- ding the productions of Hughe, Ward, Westall, right frame, with a bed beneath it, moved Harding, Lane, and others. The art was introback and forward by a winch. The stone is duced in America in 1821, and was practised firmly secured upon the bed, and a moistened by Messrs. Barnet and Doolittle in New York. sponge is passed over it; the water is repelled There is a favorable notice of it, with some of from the greasy lines of the drawing, but wets the earliest specimens, in the "American Jourthe uncovered parts of the stone. The ink is nal of Science" for 1822. For many years, applied by means of the usual printer's roller; owing to the want of artists, it made little it adheres to the greasy lines, and is repelled progress here, except for commercial purposes from the wet stone. The bed is then pulled and the production of cheap prints; but within under the roller, which is adjusted so as to the last few years many works of much merit, give a heavy pressure. The ink is thus trans- especially portraits, have been produced by ferred to the paper, which also absorbs the Sarony and others.-CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY is moisture of the stone. These successive ope- the art of producing by lithography works in rations of wetting, inking, and pulling must which various colors are printed in a single be repeated for each impression. If the draw- picture. It is much used in various branches ing is a large one, not more than 75 or 100 im- of ornamental work, and has been successfully pressions a day can be taken upon the hand employed in the production of pictures which press; if the drawing is small, seven or eight are almost facsimiles of paintings and colored times as many. Power presses have been con- drawings. Each different color is printed sepstructed within a few years capable of work-arately, from a stone which contains only the VOL. X.-34 one color. Very frequently 10 or 15 separate | in view not only the production of a picture, stones are employed, and in some very elabo- but also the subsequent etching of the surface rate prints as many as 30 or 40, some colors supporting his photograph, so as to yield enbeing printed over others to produce variations graved plates from which copies could be of tint and shading. In the first place a draw-printed in the press. In 1839 his method was ing is made which contains the general outlines superseded by that of Daguerre, with whom of the position of the different colors. On he had associated himself; but his discovery the second and third stones the general effect of the sensitiveness of asphaltum formed the of the drawing is worked in; these are printed basis of the first photo-lithographic process in neutral colors, as a pearl gray or faint sepia. deserving the name. This invention was made Each succeeding stone is charged with its own by Lemercier, Barreswill, and Lerebours of special tint, brown, blue, green, or yellow, as Paris, and patented in France in 1852. They the case may be; and the last one contains proceeded by making a solution of asphaltum the sharp dark touches, whether of shade or in ether, coating a clean lithographic stone outline, which give character and expression with this varnish, and exposing under a negato the whole. Upon the skill with which tive the dried surface so prepared. When the these colors are arranged, and upon the ac- light had sufficiently acted through the transcuracy with which each falls exactly into its parent parts of the latter, the stone was washed proper place, depend the value of the whole with ether in abundance, whereby the unwork. The misplacement of a single color to changed and still soluble portions of the coatthe extent of the fiftieth part of an inch might ing were removed, and the stone was gummed, mar the whole. This involves the necessity rolled up with ink, and etched in the manner of the utmost accuracy in the drawing upon practised by lithographers. This invention each stone, and also in the placing of the paper was based essentially on the discovery that the in its exact place at each impression. The altered mineral pitch had an affinity for the difficulty of this last is much increased by the greasy ink on the lithographer's roller, and fact that the sheet of paper must be dampened this was applied to the production of designs at each impression, whereby it expands per- on stone. The process gave crude results; but ceptibly, and dried, when it contracts. If it was the first of a series of six photo-lithothese successive dampenings be unequal, some graphic methods, each of which must be reof the colors will not fall in their right places. garded as typical, and therefore worthy of Finally, if an oil painting upon canvas is to be description in the present article.-M. Poitevin reproduced, an additional impression is given of Paris patented in December, 1855, a profrom a plate upon which are embossed lines cess for producing printable designs on stone. representing the threads of the canvas. The This was to a certain extent based on Mungo print is then varnished or glazed, like an oil Ponton's original and fundamental discovery painting. Many "chromos" thus produced in 1839, that a sheet of paper sensitized with can hardly be distinguished from the original bichromate of potash applied in solution, and pictures from which they are copied. Chromo- dried in the dark, was acted upon by light, lithography has been brought to great perfec-giving a negative brownish picture, which, after tion in London, Paris, and Vienna. In the United States Mr. Louis Prang of Boston has within a few years executed many works not excelled by any produced in Europe. It is said that the first successful attempts to produce chromo-lithographic portraits, in which the effects of the painter were closely imitated, was made about 1860 by Mr. E. C. Middleton of Cincinnati, Ohio. He produced previous to 1866 a series entitled "Middleton's National Oil Portraits," several of which are admirable specimens of the art.-PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY is the art of producing lithographic drawings by the action of light. About 1813 Joseph Nicéphore Niepce began his experiments for the production of permanent photographic pictures. These are the earliest on record, though not published till many years afterward. He used asphaltum as the substance sensitive to light, dissolving it in essential oil of lavender, and applying it as a thin varnish to metallic plates. After long exposure in the camera or under a cliché of some sort, the asphaltum became insoluble in the parts affected by light, and the picture was developed by dissolving away the unaffected portions. Undoubtedly Niepce had exposure under an intercepting screen, resisted the solvent action of water. Becquerel had subsequently shown that the sizing of the paper played an important part in this phenomenon; but Poitevin in 1855 was the first to discover and utilize the remarkable property possessed by organic matter altered by the action of light in the presence of bichromate of potash, which forms the foundation of most of the photomechanical printing processes now in use; namely, that of repelling water and attracting greasy bodies, such as lithographic ink. To accomplish his purpose he coated the litho graphic stone with a solution of bichromate of potash and albumen. After exposure under a negative, he applied moisture and ink followed by etching, in the manner practised by lithographers, thereby obtaining an inky picture on the parts exposed to light. This process is interesting, although the results were far from satisfactory, inasmuch as the printing took place, not from a picture on the stone itself, but separated from it by a film of altered organic matter; a circumstance which was not recognized by Poitevin, but was made use of many years later by Tessié du Motay, Albert, | Edwards, and others, in their collographic pro- thereon and pulling it through the press in the cesses, which are of so much importance at usual way. When removed the ink on the the present day. Joseph Dixon, late of Jersey surface of the transfer sheet will be found to City, published the essential features of this have passed over to the stone, which is then process in 1854; but his experiments were of a rolled up and etched, after which it is ready for somewhat incomplete nature, and not sufficient the printer. In this process the albumen plays to displace the claims of Poitevin. Messrs. Cut- an important part; its insolubility after coaguting and Bradford of Boston, Mass., patented lation prevents the undermining of the finer a photo-lithographic process in March, 1858. details by the solvent action of the water, and They sensitized the stone much as Poitevin it also sticks the sheet to the surface of the 'did, using bichromate of potash, gum arabic, stone during the operation of transferring, and a little sugar. They exposed it however thereby preventing any shift and consequent under a transparent positive, and washing the doubling of the work. This process is chiefly stone with a solution of soap, succeeded in ma- adapted for copying line engravings, drawings, king those parts of it take the ink which were manuscripts, &c.; and this is also true of all unacted on by light; the altered gum pro- analogous methods. It was adopted by the tecting the other places from the soap water. government of Victoria in September, 1859, In this case the lithographic work was actual- for copying and publishing maps and plans; ly on or in the stone. A suitable etching re- and since that time many thousand originals moved the altered gum after rolling up.-M. have been reproduced, being at present almost Asser of Amsterdam was the first to suggest the only means employed there. This phoa transfer process. This invention was made to-lithographic process was the first which early in 1859, but not published till November. proved of real practical value. In 1865 the His method consisted in sensitizing a sheet of American photo-lithographic company of New unsized paper, or one slightly sized with starch, York was organized, and has since worked with bichromate of potash; exposing the same this process with unvarying success. The under a negative; washing the resulting print drawings of the patent office for several years, with water; drying and heating it strongly and those of other governmental bureaus, have upon a hot plate; and finally again moistening been executed by its means, whereby a great and rolling up with transfer ink. The trans- saving in cost and innumerable advantages in fer sheet so prepared gave an inky positive pic- promptness and accuracy have been secured. ture, corresponding with greater or less fideli--In August, 1861, Mr. Hannaford of London ty to the lights and shades of the negative. After completion it was transferred to stone, which was then etched in the usual manner and printed. This process, like all the preceding, never gave results of commercial value.J. W. Osborne, then of Melbourne, Australia, in August, 1859, invented the photo-lithographic process which bears his name. He prepares a sheet of paper by coating one side with a viscid solution, consisting of a mixture of albumen, gelatine, and bichromate of potash; this, after being dried in the dark, is exposed under a negative of the original to be reproduced. The photographic positive picture thus obtained is inked all over while dry by pulling it through the press face down, in contact with a lithographic stone to which an even coating of transfer ink has been applied. When the sheet is removed from the stone, the adhesive ink covers its surface, and nearly conceals the underlying photographic picture below it. This sheet is next placed floating on hot water, with the inked side upward; the moisture and heat together effect a coagulation of the albumen in the compound organic film, while the gelatine portion of the same gelatinizes and swells. The sheet is now lifted from the water, laid flat upon a slab, and friction applied to its inked surface by means of a wet sponge. The superfluous ink not needed to form the transferable picture is hereby removed; the sheet is flooded with abundance of warm water, dried, damped again slightly, and transferred to stone by simply inverting it suggested a photo-lithographic method, which he never reduced to practice, but which M. Toovey of Brussels subsequently patented. Although this process has not come into general use, it must be regarded as essentially typical in its nature. Mr. Hannaford recommended the preparation of a sheet of paper with bichromate of potash and gum, its exposure under a negative, and its transfer while damp, without inking, to the stone. The consequence would be the passing over to the latter of more or less gum from the unexposed and unaltered parts, whereby the stone on such places would be incapacitated for receiving ink. If we now attempt to roll up the transferred surface with ink, we shall find the latter to adhere only to the clean parts of the stone, forming there the lithographic picture.-In addition to the six essentially different processes which have been described, there are numerous others based upon them, which it is unnecessary to particularize here.-As early as 1841 the late Mr. Joseph Dixon of Jersey City, and Mr. Lewis, a lithographer of Dublin, Ireland, each made attempts at the production of pictures on stone from which impressions could be printed. Mr. Dixon used bichromate and gum, much as Poitevin did. Mr. Lewis prepared a card surface with hard transparent ink, gave the same a thin coating of metallic silver, and then, proceeding as in the daguerreotype process, managed to expose certain portions of the underlying ink, which he then transferred to stone. The experiments of both these gentlemen were exceedingly limited, and the evidence respecting them is derived from their own later statements only, no specimens or contemporaneous description being extant; but when we remember that the announcements of Fox Talbot's and Daguerre's inventions were only made two years before the date claimed by them, their assertions, which there is no reason to doubt, are of the highest interest.-In 1873 the Graphic company was formed in New York, for the purpose of conducting the business of photo-lithography on a large scale. They established a daily illustrated newspaper, "The Graphic," one side of which, containing four large pages, is printed in lithograph, the illustrations being produced by photo-lithography, and the other side from type in the usual manner. They profess to have made many improvements in the processes employed, the essential features of which they retain as a secret. By their processes they are able to produce upon stone a photo-lithographic copy of any engraving or drawing in less than half an hour, although two or three hours is the usual time. At the present day photo-lithography is one of the necessities of civilization, and there are few cities of importance where it is not practised. Its results have done much to popularize the graphic arts, and to bring admirable copies of engravings, maps, and drawings within the reach of all. (See PHOTOGRAPHY.) LITHOLOGY. See ROCKS. LITHOTOMY, and Lithrotrity. See STONE. LITHUANIA (Lith. Letuva; Pol. Litwa; Ger. Lithauen), a large tract of land in eastern Europe, which now belongs to the Russian empire, with the exception of a small part included in the East Prussian district of Gumbinnen, but which in the middle ages formed an independent state, and subsequently a great principality or grand duchy united with Poland. At the period of its greatest power in the 14th century it extended from the shores of the Baltic to those of the Black sea, and from the northern Bug to the Don. At the time of the first dismemberment of Poland, in 1772, it consisted of the palatinates of Wilna, Troki, Novogrodek, Brzesc (Brest), Vitebsk, Polock (Polotzk), and Mstislav, and the duchy of Samogitia; almost the whole of these territories is now included in the Russian governments of Wilna and Grodno, or Lithuania proper, Kovno, Vitebsk, Mohilev, Minsk, and Suwalki; area estimated at about 100,000 sq. m. Lithuania is generally a flat and low country, covered in great part with sand heaths, forests, marshes, and fens. The marshes of Pinsk, in the government of Minsk, are very extensive, and form a kind of dreary and gloomy desert. The principal rivers are the Niemen, Düna, Wilia, Dnieper, Beresina, and Pripet, all of which abound in fish. The chief exportable productions are grains, flax, hemp, honey, timber, cattle, and horses. Among the wild animals are bears, wolves, elks, lynxes, wild hogs, foxes, and the aurochs | or European bison, which is now confined exclusively to the great forests in the government of Grodno. The climate is moderate and healthy. The inhabitants consist chiefly of Lithuanians proper, Poles, Russians, Tartars, and Jews.-Lithuania is first mentioned under this name about the beginning of the 11th century, when the inhabitants were little more than half savages living on the rude products of their extensive forests. They were long tributary to various neighboring Russian principalities, and, having recovered their independence, became involved in the 13th century in a long struggle with the knights swordbearers, who established themselves on the shores of the Baltic, and in connection with the Teutonic order subdued and converted the kindred pagan tribes of the Prussians and others. Though inferior to their enemies in the art of war, the Lithuanians not only maintained their freedom, but also commenced a series of aggressive wars with their eastern neighbors, and rapidly grew in power. Ringold appears as the first great prince or grand duke of the united country before the middle of the 13th century. His son Mindog received the royal diadem from the pope after having adopted the Christian religion, and was crowned at Novogrodek, but soon relapsed into paganism. Under Gedimin, in the earlier part of the 14th century, Lithuania became a powerful state by the conquest of Volhynia, the principalities of Kiev and Tchernigov, and others. His son and successor, Olgerd, even thrice appeared before the gates of Moscow. The son of the latter, Jagello, who married Hedvig, the daughter of King Louis of Hungary and Poland, becoming king of the latter country, united with it Lithuania, and converted his hereditary subjects to Christianity. Under Sigismund II. Augustus the two countries were still more closely united in 1569, though Lithuania retained separate armies, finances, and laws. (See POLAND.)—The Lithuanian language, a branch of the Lettic (see LETTIO RACE), is spoken in parts of East Prussia, in Samogitia, and in Lithuania proper. Its close affinity to the Sanskrit and relation to other languages have been established by Bohlen, Bopp, Schleicher, and others. The Latin form of writing was introduced with the religion of Rome. The vowels are the Italian a, e, i, (or y), o, u, the pronunciation of which is determined by the use of the three French accents (', `, ^), and ů (uo). The consonants are: b, c (as in Polish, like ts in English), é or cz (the Polish cz, Eng. tch), d, g (hard), i before vowels (Pol. j, Eng. y consonant), k, l, t (resembling rl), m, n, p, r, 8, 82 (Eng. sh), t, w (Eng. v), 2 (as in English), (Eng. j). There is no letter h. A dropped nasal sound is marked by a little line in the vowels. Like the Slavic tongues and the Latin, the Lithuanian has no article, and three genders for nouns and adjectives. There are seven cases of declension, the same as in Polish: nominative, added to one of these portions until it assumes a red color, after which the two portions of liquid are mixed. As from the manner of preparation litmus is likely to contain an excess of alkali, this method is adopted to render it as nearly neutral as may be, and thus increase its sensitiveness. Unsized paper is dipped into this infusion, and after it is dry cut in strips of convenient size and preserved in a stoppered bottle to prevent access of acid fumes. The paper thus prepared is a very sensitive test for acids. Another portion is prepared by adding acid to the blue infusion until it is red, and dipping paper in this; this is red litmus paper, and serves as a test for the presence of alkalies, which restores the normal blue color. genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instru- | two parts; dilute sulphuric acid is gradually mental, and locative. The noun has five forms of declension, depending upon the termination and gender. The comparative degree is formed by esnis or esne, the superlative by ausas or ausa. The numerals are: wienas (Lat. unus), du (Lat. duo), trys (Lat. tres), keturi (Lat. quatuor, Pol. cztery), penke (Pol. pięć), szessi (Lat. sex, Pol. sześć), septyni (Lat. septem), asstůni (Lat. octo), dewyni (Pol. dziewięć), dessimti (Pol. dziesięć, Lat. decem), &c. The pronouns resemble those of most Indo-European languages. The tenses of the verb are the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and future; it has conjunctive, factitive, inchoative, frequentative, and reciprocal forms, various participles, and a passive formed by auxiliaries. The language is rich in formatives and particles of every kind. Prepositions govern the cases of declension. Among the earlier grammars and dictionaries are those by Ruhig (1747) and Mielcke (1800), and the Polish-Latin-Lithuanian dictionary by the Jesuit Schyrnoid (died in 1631), whose sermons are the earliest extant work printed in the language. The most important works on the language are Schleicher's Handbuch der litauischen Sprache (2 vols., Prague, 1856-7), his Litauische Märchen, &c. (Vienna, 1857), and his edition of the Lithuanian verses of Donaleitis (St. Petersburg, 1865). There is hardly any Lithuanian literature, the principal productions being popular songs, religious and liturgical hymns, riddles, and other poetry. LITMUS (Ger. Lackmus), a blue coloring matter prepared from rocella tinctoria and related lichens. The various species of rocella are found upon the rocks of the coast of the Mediterranean and other warm countries; they are known in commerce as archil or orchella weed, and are designated by the names of the countries which produce them. (See ARCHIL.) They are used for dyeing, and when prepared by fermentation with potash or soda, they produce litmus. The lichen is macerated for several weeks in water, to which urine, lime, and potash have been added. Exposed to the air, the mixture undergoes a fermentation, becoming at first reddish, and ultimately blue. When the pulpy mass has assumed the proper blue color, it is pressed into a mould to form small rectangular cakes, plaster or clay being sometimes added to increase the bulk. As found in commerce, litmus is in small squares, light, friable, of the color of poor indigo, and of an odor that has been compared to that of violets. It consists of several peculiar coloring matters, together with the remains of lichens and such earthy substances as may have been added. The sole use of litmus is as a test for acids and alkalies, it being reddened upon contact with an acid, and the blue color being at once restored by an alkali.-Litmus paper is the form in which litmus is used as a test. To prepare this, a strong infusion of litmus is made with boiling water; this is divided into LITTA, Pompeo, count, an Italian historian, born in Milan, Sept. 27, 1781, died there, Aug. 17, 1852. Enlisting in 1804 as a common soldier, he attained a high position in the French army, which he left in 1814. Under the revolutionary government of Lombardy in 1848 he officiated for a short time as minister of war and commander of the national guard of Milan. He is the author of Famiglie celebri italiane (1819-'52), containing the history of upward of 50 eminent Italian families, a work renowned both for superb execution and historical accuracy. It was continued from his materials by Odorici and others. LITTLEDALE, Richard Frederick, an Irish clergyman, born in Dublin, Sept. 14, 1833. He graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, in 1854, took orders in England in 1856, and was a curate in London till 1861, since which he has been occupied in writing. Among his works are: "Philosophy of Revivals" (1860); "Offices of the Holy Eastern Church" (1863) "Catholic Ritual in the Church of England (1865); "Lecture on the Reformers" (1868); "Commentary on the Song of Songs" (1869); "Church Reform " (1870); "Pharisaic Proselytism" (1870); and "Church and Dissent (1871). He has also edited St. Anselm's Cur Deus Homo? (1863), and "Primitive Liturgies in Greek and English" (1868-'9). LITTLE FALLS, a town and village of Herkimer co., New York, on the Mohawk river, and on the Erie canal and New York Central railroad, 65 m. W. N. W. of Albany; pop. of the town in 1870, 5,612; of the village, 5,387. The village lies partly in the adjoining towns of Manheim and Danube, and is built in a narrow valley, with granite rocks rising on either side to the height of about 500 ft. The river here falls 42 ft. in three fourths of a mile, affording great water power, and the canal passes by a deep cut in the solid rock through a picturesque defile, 2 m. in length. The feeder of the canal crosses the river by an aqueduct, with an arch of 70 ft. span. The village has an extensive trade in cheese, and contains paper mills, woollen factories, flour mills, a cotton mill, manufactories of starch, |