town; and the Spanish armada sailed hence in 1588. The most memorable event in the history of the city is the great earthquake of Nov. 1, 1755, by which about 40,000 persons lost their lives, and most of the city was destroyed. (See EARTHQUAKE, vol. vi., p. 360.) It has never fully recovered from this calamity, of which traces still remain in the desolated aspect of many vacant building sites. The city was occupied by the French in November, 1807, but delivered by the English in 1808, and protected by the duke of Wellington against the attacks of the enemy by the erection in 1809-'10 of formidable fortifications, extending from the Atlantic eastward to Torres Vedras (hence called the lines of Torres Vedras), and thence southeastward to Alhandra on the Tagus. On the occasion of the revolt of the troops against Dom Miguel, Aug. 21, 1831, some 300 persons lost their lives. The town was seized by Dom Pedro in July, 1833. L'ISLET, a S. county of Quebec, Canada, bounded S. E. by Maine and N. W. by the St. Lawrence; area, 793 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 13,517, of whom 13,375 were of French origin or descent. It is traversed by the Grand Trunk railway. Capital, St. Jean Port Joli. academy of sciences in 1702, and was afterward appointed tutor in geography to Louis XV., who created for him in 1718 the title of "first geographer to the king," with a pension of 1,200 livres. De Lisle drew up several maps for the use of his royal pupil, and the whole number made by him is said to amount to 134. In 1724 he published a corrected edition of his map of the world. He contributed several memoirs to the Recueil de l'académie des sciences. II. Joseph Nicolas, a French astronomer, brother of the preceding, born in Paris, April 4, 1688, died there, Sept. 11, 1768. He first brought himself into notice in 1706 by an essay on an eclipse of the sun. In 1714 he was chosen a member of the French academy, and in 1724 visited England, where he was elected a fellow of the royal society. On the invitation of Catharine I. in 1726, he went to St. Petersburg, where he had charge of the observatory till 1747, when ill health obliged him to return to France. While in Russia he had made a collection of objects illustrative of geography and astronomy, which on his return was purchased by Louis XV., and De Lisle charged with the care of it. He also became a professor in the royal college of France. counts Leszczynski, with whom in the 16th century the persecuted Bohemian Brethren found a refuge. At the time of the thirty years' war Lissa was the chief seat of the Bohemian Brethren, who had here their most famous school, a seminary, and their archives. LISIEUX (anc. Noviomagus), a city of Nor- LISSA (Polish Leszno), a town of Prussia, mandy, France, in the department of Calva- in the province and 42 m. S. S. W. of the dos, 25 m. E. of Caen; pop. in 1866, 12,617. city of Posen; pop. in 1871, 10,635, of whom It is situated in a fine valley, watered by more than one third were Jews. It has four the small streams Orbec and Touques. The churches, a synagogue, a normal school, a principal street, traversed by the highway gymnasium, and a large number of manufacfrom Caen to Évreux, is spacious and hand-tories. It was originally a family estate of the some; the rest of the town is composed of narrow and tortuous streets, and most of the houses are of wood and present a wretched appearance. The finest edifice is the cathedral, a Gothic building of the 12th century. The episcopal palace is a fine building with beautiful gardens. Most of the manufactures of the arrondissement of Lisieux, chiefly linen, woollen, cotton, ribbons, &c., are sold here, and there is also a brisk commerce in grain, fruits, cider, hemp, flax, cattle, and the other produce of the country.-Lisieux was anciently the capital of the Lexovii. It was pillaged by the Normans in 877, burned by the Bretons in 1130, taken by Philip Augustus in 1203, by the English in 1417, and by Henry IV. in 1590. It became early the see of a bishop, but the diocese was abolished in 1801. LISLE. I. Guillaume de, a French geographer, born in Paris, Feb. 28, 1675, died Jan. 25, 1726. He was the son of Claude de Lisle, a geographer and historian of some note, and at the age of nine had constructed several charts of ancient history. He wholly reconstructed the system of geography current in Europe in 1700, by the publication of maps of the world, and of Europe, Asia, and Africa, in which he corrected many of the errors that had been copied with little alteration into all the works on geography since the time of Ptolemy. He also constructed a celestial and terrestrial globe. He was admitted to the LISSA, an Austrian island in the Adriatic sea, belonging to Dalmatia, 22 m. S. W. of Spalato; area, 38 sq.m.; pop. about 7,000. It has a strongly fortified war port. The Austrian admiral Tegetthoff obtained here, July 20, 1866, a great naval victory over the Italians under Admiral Persano. LIST, Friedrich, a German political economist, born in Reutlingen, Aug. 6, 1789, died by his own hand in Kufstein, Nov. 30, 1846. He studied political economy, was for two years professor of this and kindred sciences at Tübingen, and officiated as agent of the German commercial union from 1819 to 1821, when he was elected to the Würtemberg chamber of deputies; but having attacked the government in a petition, he was prevented from taking his seat, and sentenced to ten months' imprisonment. After fruitless attempts to obtain pardon, and after several years' exile, he was eventually imprisoned in the fortress of Asperg, after which he emigrated to the United States, and settled in Pennsylvania. His "Outlines of a new System of Political Economy" was published in Philadelphia in 1827. He became an extensive holder of land, which he made avail able for cultivation in concert with other capitalists, and also took an active interest in the establishment of railroads. In 1830 he was appointed United States consul at Hamburg; but after a residence in Paris, he came back to Pennsylvania, and finally returned to Europe in 1832, and in 1833 took up his abode at Leipsic, where for some time he officiated as American consul. In 1837 he went to Paris, whence he wrote a series of letters to the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung, subsequently collected in a work, the first volume of which was published under the title of Das nationale System der politischen Oekonomie (Stuttgart, 1841). In 1843 he established at Augsburg the Zollvereinsblatt, in which he proposed the enlargement of the customs union, and the organization of a national commercial system and of a national fleet. In 1844 he visited Austria and Hungary, and in 1846 England with the view of forming a commercial alliance between that country and Germany. He was not successful, and, having lost his property and his health, shot himself. His works have been published with his biography by Häusser (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1850-'51). LISTER, Thomas Henry, an English author, born about 1800, died in 1842. He was register general of births. He wrote two novels, "Granby" and "Herbert Lacy," and a "Life of Lord Clarendon, the Historian."-His widow, a sister of the earl of Clarendon, was in 1844 married to Sir George Cornewall Lewis. (See LEWIS.) LISZT, Franz, a Hungarian pianist and composer, born at Raiding, near Oedenburg, Oct. 22, 1811. At six years of age he manifested so extraordinary an aptitude for music, that his father, himself a musician of some repute, thenceforth carefully instructed him on the pianoforte. In his ninth year he performed at a public concert in Presburg at which were present several wealthy Hungarian noblemen. The latter, astonished at young Liszt's talents, at once proposed to contribute to his musical education during the next six years. In accordance with this proposition Liszt was taken by his father to Vienna and put under the instruction of Karl Czerny and Salieri, with whom he remained about 18 months, after which he appeared in concerts in Vienna, Munich, and elsewhere, with great success. At Paris, where he arrived in 1823, he received the most flattering attentions. Although rejected as a pupil by the conservatory on account of his foreign birth, he was carefully instructed in counterpoint by Reicha, and not a day passed in which he did not give many hours of practice to the works of Bach and other eminent composers for the pianoforte. When his education was considered finished, father and son made lucrative concert tours in the provinces and in England. Upon his return to Paris in 1825, Franz produced an opera in one act entitled Don Sanche, ou le château de l'amour, which only escaped condemnation on account of the youth of the composer. In 1827 he lost his father, an event which made a deep impresLISTON, John, an English actor, born in sion upon him, and under the influence of an London in 1776, died March 22, 1846. He unusually active imagination he surrendered was educated at Dr. Barrow's school, Soho, himself to gloomy fancies and religious rhapand subsequently became second master in sodies. An unhappy attachment to a woman the grammar school of St. Martin's, Leicester of rank at the same time prompted him to resquare, founded by Archbishop Tenison. Hav- tire from the world, and for several years he ing been expelled from this establishment for almost wholly relinquished his art. In this inacting in plays with the large boys, he went terval he embraced at different times the docupon the stage, and for several years appeared trines of the St. Simonians, the philosophy of in provincial theatres with moderate success. Lamennais, and the vivid poetic fancies of VicHis Diggory in "She Stoops to Conquer " first tor Hugo or George Sand. During the revorevealed his remarkable comic genius. In lution of July, 1830, he composed a Sympho1806 he obtained an engagement at the Hay- nie révolutionaire, which was never published. market theatre, and by his Gawkey in the The appearance of Paganini in Paris in 1831 "Chapter of Accidents" and Lord Grizzle in roused him from this mood, and, full of the "Tom Thumb" established a reputation as one idea of becoming the Paganini of the pianoforte, of the first low comedians of the day. In he resumed his practice on that instrument. 1809 he attempted tragedy, with but moderate In 1835 he heard of the success of Thalberg in success. His famous character of Paul Pry, Paris, and, after an interval of eight years, sudfirst performed in 1825, created an unusual sen- denly made his reappearance there with an sation. Among his other principal characters éclat which his long absence had in no respect were Mawworm, Tony Lumpkin, Bombastes diminished. A contemporary critic, in enuFurioso, and Billy Lackaday in "Sweethearts merating the qualities which distinguished both and Wives." He retired from the stage about pianists, observed: "Thalberg is the first, but 1837. He was a man of exemplary character. Liszt is the only one." From Paris Liszt pro-His wife, whose maiden name was Tyres, ceeded in 1837 to Italy, creating everywhere a born in London about 1780, was almost a sensation not less lively than that caused by dwarf, but was for many years a favorite Paganini. At Vienna he gave a series of conwith the public in her acting as well as in her certs in aid of the sufferers by the great inunsongs. Her best part was that of Queen Dol- dation of 1838 at Pesth; and at the solicitation lalolla in "Tom Thumb." She was married of a deputation of Hungarian noblemen he subto Liston in 1807, and died Sept. 19, 1854. sequently visited the latter city, where he was received with extraordinary enthusiasm, and was presented by the inhabitants with a sword of honor and the rights of citizenship. In 1839 an effort was made to raise by subscription a sum sufficient to erect a monument to Beethoven in Bonn, his birthplace. At the end of six months only 600 francs had been subscribed, when Liszt contributed the whole amount (about 60,000 francs) necessary for the completion of the monument, and it was inaugurated in August, 1845. From 1838 to 1847 his career was a succession of triumphs. In the latter year he retired to a small village in Germany, with the intention of devoting himself to a higher order of composition than the fantasias and other pianoforte pieces which he had previously produced. About this time he accepted an offer from the duke of Weimar to assume the post of conductor of the court concerts and the opera at Weimar. In this position he made Weimar one of the chief musical centres of Europe, and helped to introduce to notice several of the rising composers of Germany, notably Richard Wagner. With characteristic generosity he also afforded gratuitous instruction to young pianists, for whose benefit he gave private performances. During this period he produced his most important musical compositions. His Faustsymphonie mit Chor, Granermesse, Krönungsmesse, and his oratorios Die Heilige Elisabeth and Christus, created a great sensation and gave rise to much criticism and discussion. In 1861 he went to Rome and became a great favorite of the pope. In 1865 he took ecclesiastical orders; and since that time he has been known as the abbé Liszt, and has devoted himself principally to the composition of church music. In 1870 he acted as leader of the Beethoven festival at Weimar, and afterward gave concerts for charitable and religious objects in Munich, Vienna, Pesth, and other cities. In 1871 he suddenly offered for sale his villa at Rome, and took up his residence in Pesth; and in 1874, the 50th year of his artistic career, he gave to the museum of Pesth his valuable collection of curiosities and works of art. As a performer Liszt stands at the head of what has been called the "prodigious" school, excelling in the production of difficult and novel effects. His fingering is firm, vigorous, and wonderfully flexible; but he labors under the imputation, not altogether unfounded, of sacrificing grace to strength, and of a desire to astonish rather than to charm by his playing. Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and the older composers have, however, had no more eloquent interpreter, notwithstanding he cannot always avoid substituting his own ideas for theirs. He has been an active contributor to musical literature, and is the author of a "Life of Chopin" (1852; English translation by Martha Walker Cook, 1863), of a work on "The Gypsies and their Music" (Paris, 1859), and of numerous articles in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. His Theoretische und praktische Musik, in 3 vols., is announced for | publication in 1875. He has been one of the most prolific composers of this generation. His works number several hundred, and belong to almost every department of the art. During the earlier parts of his career he was more conspicuous as an arranger of the ideas of others than as an original composer. He has made fantasies and improvisations on nearly all the popular Italian and German operas, and has transcribed for the piano a great number of German songs. His compositions for orchestra are numerous, and display boldness of treatment and variety of instrumental effect rather than originality or beauty of thought. LITCHFIELD, the N. W. county of Connecticut, bordering on New York and Massachusetts; area, 885 sq. m.; pop. in 1870 48,727. It is watered by the Housatonic, Naugatuck, and Farmington rivers, with their branches, which supply extensive water power. The surface is uneven, in some parts mountainous, and the soil is good. Iron ore abounds, and is extensively manufactured. The Housatonic, the Naugatuck, and the Connecticut Western railroads pass through it. The chief productions in 1870 were 6,822 bushels of wheat, 50,444 of rye, 236,900 of Indian corn, 257,606 of oats, 27,561 of buckwheat, 319,497 of potatoes, 1,048,569 lbs. of tobacco, 51,759 of wool, 1,617,850 of butter, 1,307,396 of cheese, and 109,415 tons of hay. There were 6,076 horses, 22,514 milch cows, 6,482 working oxen, 17,477 other cattle, 17,824 sheep, and 7,232 swine. Of the numerous manufacturing establishments, the principal were 14 of agricultural implements, 9 of brass, brass ware, pins, &c., 41 of carriages, 3 of cotton goods, 10 of cutlery and edge tools, 12 of hardware, 2 of hats and caps, 20 of iron, 4 of machinery, 1 of needles, 6 of paper, 2 of plated ware, 1 of silk goods, 17 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, 9 of woollen goods, 1 of worsted goods, 11 tanneries, 6 currying establishments, 31 flour mills, and 30 saw mills. Capital, Litchfield. LITCHFIELD, the shire town of Litchfield co., Connecticut, situated between the Naugatuck river on the east and the Shepaug on the west, 30 m. W. of Hartford; pop. in 1870, 3,113. It contains five post villages, viz.: Bantam Falls, East Litchfield (on the Naugatuck railroad), Litchfield, Milton, and Northfield. The village of Litchfield is near the centre of the town, at the terminus of the Shepaug railroad, and occupies an elevated site noted for the beauty of its view. It is built chiefly on two streets, shaded with ancient elms and crossing each other at right angles; near the intersection of these are two parks, in the E. one of which a monument to the memory of citizens of the town who fell in the civil war has been erected. The village contains the court house, jail, a national and a savings bank, three hotels, several schools, a private lunatic asylum, two weekly newspapers, and four churches. It was the seat of a celebrated law school, established in 1784 and discontinued in 1838, and of the first young ladies' seminary established in the United States. The village has become a favorite summer resort. Bantam lake on the S. border of the town is the largest in the state, and at Bantam Falls near its outlet, where there is good water power, several factories have been built.-The town was settled in 1720. In 1859 the town of Morris was taken from it, and in 1866 a portion was annexed to Torrington. to Italy, then visited Greece, western Asia, and LITCHI, a Chinese edible fruit, which is occasionally to be found in the fruit stores of our seaport cities. It is produced by a small tree, nephelium litchi, belonging to the sapindacea, the family which includes the horse chestnut, soap berry, &c.; the leaves are pinnate, and the small apetalous flowers are in panicles at the ends of the branches. The fruit, which is borne in clusters, is globular, about an inch and a half in diameter, and when fresh is filled with a sweet, white, nearly transparent, jelly-rable that he had to be presented at court re Litchi. like pulp, within which is a single seed. The Chinese are exceedingly fond of the pulp, and esteem the litchi above all other native fruits. The fruits come to us in the dried state only, but they are dried for home use as well as for exportation; as found in the stores, the very thin handsomely marked shell is of a reddish brown color, and partly empty from the shrinking of the pulp in drying, which tastes somewhat like prunes. Other species of nephelium furnish the longan and rambutan, fruits highly esteemed in China and neighboring countries; but the litchi is the only one imported. LITHARGE. See LEAD. LITHGOW, William, a Scottish traveller, born in the parish of Lanark in 1583, died there in 1640. He was of humble parentage, and as soon as he attained manhood commenced a pedestrian tour on the continent. After travelling in Germany, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and France, he proceeded clining on a feather bed. On recovering his health Lithgow was so imprudent as to assault the Spanish ambassador in the presence chamber, which consigned him for nine months to the Marshalsea prison. His latter days were passed in Scotland. The first edition of his "Adventures" was published in London in 1614, the latest in 1814. He was also the author of a history of the siege of Breda (1637). LITHIA (Gr. 2i0os, a stone), the oxide of the metal lithium, discovered by Arfwedson in 1817 in the mineral petalite, since found in lepidolite, spodumene, and in several varieties of mica and feldspar, also in tobacco and mineral waters; symbol Li2O, chemical equivalent 30. It is an alkaline substance closely allied to potash and soda. It is separated by igniting the pulverized minerals that contain it with twice their weight of quicklime, treating first with hydrochloric and then with sulphuric acid. The sulphate of lithia, being soluble, is thus separated from the insoluble sulphate of lime, and is afterward decomposed by baryta water, the hydrate of lithia after filtration being recovered by evaporation; this fuses below redness; but as the alkali powerfully attacks platinum, the capsules employed should be of silver. Lithia forms several salts, which in general are remarkably fusible. LITHIUM, a metal first obtained by Davy; symbol Li, chemical equivalent 7. (See LITHIA.) It is most easily reduced from the chloride by the galvanic current. It is a soft, ductile, white metal, susceptible of being welded and drawn into wire, but has less tenacity than lead. It fuses at 356°, and is not volatilized at a red heat. It is the lightest metal known, its specific gravity being only 0.5936. It burns brilliantly, floats upon water and naphtha, and soon abstracts oxygen, its behavior being like that of sodium. It was supposed to be a very rare substance, but Bunsen and Kirchhoff have shown by spectrum analysis that, though sparingly, it is widely distributed.-Three salts of lithium, the carbonate, citrate, and bromide, are used in medicine. Of these the first two are more powerfully diuretic than the corresponding salts of sodium or potassium, and from their low combining numbers a smaller dose suffices to render the urine alkaline. The compound formed by lithia with uric acid is very soluble, and these salts have accordingly been recommended and used in the treatment of gout (in which disease an excess of uric acid is found in the blood), being administered either in the form of an ordinary pharmaceutical solution or mixture, or as natural or artificial mineral waters. The action of the bromide of lithium is similar to that of the bromide of potassium, but is said to be effective in cases in which the latter fails. LITHOGRAPHY (Gr. 2100s, a stone, and ypapɛiv, to write), a method of producing printed copies of a writing or drawing on stone without the usual process of engraving. It was invented about 1796-'8, in Munich, by Aloys Senefelder. As originally proposed by him, it was merely an etching in relief upon stone, a process which had long before been practised both upon stone and metal, although he was probably ignorant of the fact. As early as 1728 Dufay, a member of the French academy, described and practised a method of etching upon stone. He made a drawing with varnish, and used an acid to eat down the unprotected parts of the stone, leaving the lines in relief, and is said to have produced some exquisite work. About 1788 William Blake, the English painter, invented (or as he believed was spiritually taught) a similar process, only he used plates of copper, and in this manner produced his most famous works. Senefelder's use of stone was wholly accidental. Being, like Blake, too poor to pay for printing his works, he endeavored to devise some means of doing this himself from plates etched in relief, and to avoid expense he used smooth slabs of stone instead of plates of copper. Being ignorant of the composition of the varnish used by engravers for their etching ground, he invented a kind of crayon composed of wax and tallow. One day his mother wished him to write out a list of clothes to be sent to the laundress. Paper and ink not being at hand, he wrote the list upon a stone with his crayon. When he was about to clean off the stone it occurred to him, as it had to Dufay, that the body of the stone could be eaten down by aquafortis, leaving the lines in relief, so that impressions could be taken in the usual manner. His experiments in this direction were partially successful, although less so than those of Blake. In 1798 he thought of the availability of the chemical principle which is the foundation of the art of lithography properly so called, namely, the mutual repulsion between oily substances and water. The material upon which the drawing is usually made is an argillaceous limestone. Stones more or less adapted for the purpose occur in various parts of Europe and America; but the best are found in the quarries of Solenhofen in Bavaria, and these are almost ex |clusively used, being exported to all parts of the world where lithography is practised. The rock belongs to the upper oõlite, is very closely grained, and is evidently formed from the finest sediments, the color varying from a light buff to a pearl gray. The stones, being quarried in mass, are split or sawn into slabs two or three inches in thickness and of any required size. To prepare them for use, they are ground to a perfectly uniform face and polished. If the drawing is to be in crayon, they are grained" by rubbing two together, with the intervention of fine sand, the graining being finer or coarser according to the nature of the work to be produced. If the drawing is to be in ink, the surface is left polished. The crayons are composed mainly of tallow, wax, hard soap, and shell lac, colored with lamp black; other ingredients being sometimes added. The mixture is thoroughly incorporated in a closed vessel over a fire, and then moulded into the usual crayon form. Crayons, technically called "chalk," are required of different degrees of hardness; an increase of tallow makes them softer, of shell lac harder. With these crayons the drawing is made upon the stone precisely as upon paper. For pen-and-ink drawings a piece of the chalk is rubbed down with water upon a marble or porcelain slab, so as to form a liquid ink, which is applied with a fine pen or a camel's hair pencil. Both methods are frequently used in the same drawing, the fine strokes and sharp outlines being made with a pen, the coarser ones with crayons, while broad masses and tints are washed in with the pencil. But owing to the presence of the alkali of the soap, the chalk is soluble in water, and the drawing can be washed off with a moistened sponge. Diluted nitric or hydrochloric acid is therefore poured over the stone; the acid unites with and neutralizes the alkali, leaving the remainder of the chalk insoluble in water. The acid attacks the uncovered portions of the stone, rendering them more porous and more capable of absorbing water, and also eats it down, leaving the lines in slight relief, and thus facilitates the process of printing. The stone is next washed with pure water and afterward with gum water; the object of the latter is to prevent the coloring matter from spreading under the pressure to which the stone is to be subjected in printing, and to retain the acid that adheres to the greasy substance, the quality of which it is designed to change. Being then rolled over with printers' ink, it is ready for printing, although it is sometimes necessary to lay it aside for a day or two in order that the chalk may become thoroughly hardened. Sometimes the drawing is made upon transfer paper, which is merely paper coated on one side with a solution of gum, starch, and alum; thus the drawing is not directly upon the surface of the paper, but upon the preparation with which it is covered. The paper is then laid upon the stone, and |