linen, coaches, and harness; and there are large | incorporated by Edward II., and Queen Mary breweries. The carpet manufacture, formerly constituted it a separate county. The episcoextensive here, has declined. The city was pal see was established about 670, and from 785 to the close of the century it was an arch- | ernor Janssens to the Cape of Good Hope. At bishopric. LICHTENBERG, Georg Christoph, a German physicist, born at Oberramstädt, near Darmstadt, July 1, 1742, died in Göttingen, Feb. 24, 1799. He was educated at Darmstadt and Göttingen, and appointed professor of mathematics at the university of the latter place in 1770, and subsequently of experimental philosophy. During two visits to England he studied the English character and literature, and acquired that stock of information which he afterward turned to account in his unfinished Erklärung der Hogarthischen Kupferstiche (Göttingen, 1794-'9). From 1778 till his death he was editor of the Göttingischer Taschenkalender, and in 1780 he began, in connection with Georg Forster, the Göttingisches Magazin der Literatur und Wissenschaft, which was discontinued in 1785. Among his other works are: Ueber Physiognomik wider die Physiognomen (1778), in which he ridiculed Lavater's science of physiognomy, and Ueber die Pronunciation der Schöpse des alten Griechenland (1782), a satire on Voss's proposed modification of the spelling of words derived from the Greek. A complete edition of his works was published at Göttingen (9 vols. 8vo, 1800-'6, and 6 vols., 1844-'5). LICHTENSTEIN, Martin Heinrich Karl, a German naturalist, born in Hamburg, Jan. 10, 1780, died on board the steamer between Korsör and Kiel, Sept. 3, 1857. He studied at Jena, graduated in 1802 as doctor of medicine at Helmstedt, and accompanied the Dutch gov the end of 1802 he made a tour of exploration in the interior of Cape Colony, and collected the materials for his scientific work, Reisen im südlichen Afrika (Berlin, 1810-'11; English translation by Anne Plumptre, London, 1812). In 1804, on the outbreak of the war with England, he served as surgeon in a regiment of Hottentots, and in 1805 was sent on a mission to some of the native tribes. In 1811 he became professor of zoology at the university of Berlin, and in 1813 director of the zoological museum. He wrote many zoological works. LICK, James, an American philanthropist, born at Fredericksburg, Lebanon co., Pa., Aug. 25, 1796. He was engaged in commercial pursuits in South America from 1821 to 1847, when he went to California, invested largely in real estate, and employed his means in other enterprises, which resulted in the accumulation of a large fortune. In 1874 he assigned $2,000,000 from his estate to trustees for various public and philanthropic purposes, including $700,000 for a telescope and other apparatus for an observatory previously founded by him at Lake Tahoe; $300,000 for a school of mechanical arts in California; $250,000 for public monuments and $150,000 for public baths in Sacramento; $150,000 for a monument to Francis Scott Key, the author of "The Star-Spangled Banner;" and large sums to several benevolent societies in San Francisco, in which city he now (1874) resides. LICKING, a central county of Ohio, drained by the Licking river; area, 666 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 35,756. It has a level surface and a good soil, mostly under cultivation, and abounds in iron ore. It is intersected by the Ohio canal, and by the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis railroad, and the Central Ohio and Lake Erie divisions of the Baltimore and Ohio. The chief productions in 1870 were 332,381 bushels of wheat, 1,556,341 of Indian corn, 359,617 of oats, 145,305 of potatoes, 1,061,513 lbs. of wool, 858,152 of butter, and 49,995 tons of hay. There were 9,993 horses, 8,319 milch cows, 14,898 other cattle, 220,963 sheep, and 31,103 swine; 26 manufactories of carriages, 2 of brick, 1 of rectified coal oil, 6 of iron castings, 2 of engines and boilers, 12 of saddlery and harness, 1 of sash, doors, and blinds, 6 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, 1 of woollen goods, 13 tanneries, 9 currying establishments, 1 distillery, 3 breweries, 3 flour mills, 1 planing mill, and 10 saw mills. Capital, Newark. LICKING. I. A river of Kentucky, rising in Floyd co. among the Cumberland mountains, and, after a N. W. course of more than 200 m., falling into the Ohio at Newport, opposite Cincinnati. It is navigable for small steamers to Falmouth, about 50 m. from its mouth. II. A river of Ohio, called the Pataskala by the Indians, rising near the centre of the state, and, after a winding S. E. course of about 75 m., falling into the Muskingum at Zanesville. It furnishes valuable water power. LICTORS, in Roman antiquity, public officers appointed to attend on the chief magistrates, to clear the way and to enforce proper respect. At first they were freemen of the plebeian order, but in later times the office could be held by freedmen. No slave was ever appointed a lictor. The ancient kings were always preceded by 12 lictors, who bore the fasces and secures. One of the consuls was preceded by the same number, bearing only the fasces. Dictators had a double number. Lictors also waited on the decemviri, prætors, and proconsuls, and on some minor magistrates when in the provinces. It belonged to them to inflict punishment on condemned Roman citizens. LIDDELL, Henry George, an English scholar, born about 1811. He graduated at Christchurch college, Oxford, in 1833, took holy orders, and after holding various posts in that college became successively proctor of the university, head master of Westminster school, domestic chaplain to Prince Albert, and chaplain extraordinary to the queen. In 1855 he was appointed dean of Christchurch, and in 1870 vice chancellor of the university of Oxford. With R. Scott, M. A., he prepared a Greek lexicon (London, 1843; 6th enlarged ed., 1869; enlarged by Henry Drisler, New York, 1846). He has also published "History of Rome from the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire" (2 vols., 1855). LIDDON, Henry Parry, an English clergyman, born in 1830. He was educated at Christchurch, Oxford, and graduated in 1850. Having taken orders, he was vice principal of the | theological college of Cuddesdon from 1854 to 1859, became examining chaplain to the bishop of Salisbury, and in 1864 was made prebendary of Salisbury cathedral. In 1866 he was appointed Bampton lecturer, became canon residentiary in St. Paul's cathedral, London, in 1870, and the same year was appointed Íreland professor of exegesis in the university of Oxford. He is distinguished as one of the most eloquent preachers in the church of England, and has published "Lenten Sermons" (1858); "The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ" (Bampton lectures, 1867); and "Some Words for God" (1871). LIEBER. I. Francis, an American publicist, born in Berlin, March 18, 1800, died in New York, Oct. 2, 1872. He had begun the study of medicine when in 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer, fought in the battles of Ligny and Waterloo, and was severely wounded in the assault on Namur. He studied at the university of Jena, suffered persecution in 1819 as member of a Burschenschaft, and in 1821 proceeded to Greece to take part in its struggle for independence, travelling on foot through Switzerland to Marseilles. After enduring various privations, he returned to Italy, and passed the years 1822 and 1823 at Rome in the family of Niebuhr, then Prussian ambassador. He wrote while there a journal of his sojourn in Greece. Returning to Germany in 1824, he was imprisoned at Köpenick, where he wrote a collection of poems, which, on his release by the influence of Niebuhr, was printed at Berlin under the name of Franz Arnold. Annoyed by persecutions, he went to England in 1825, and supported himself for a year in London as a private teacher. In 1827 he came to the United States, and lectured on history and politics in the larger cities. While residing at Boston he undertook the editorship of the "Encyclopædia Americana," based upon Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon. It was published in Philadelphia in 13 volumes, between the years 1829 and 1833. He also made translations of a French work on the revolution of July, 1830, and of the life of Kaspar Hauser by Feuerbach. At New York in 1832 he translated the work of De Beaumont and De Tocqueville on the penitentiary system in the United States, adding an introduction and notes. On invitation of the trustees of Girard college he furnished a plan of education and instruction for that institution, which was published at Philadelphia in 1834. In the same year appeared his "Letters to a Gentleman in Germany, written after a Trip from Philadelphia to Niagara," and in 1835 his "Reminiscences of Niebuhr." In this year he was appointed professor of history and political economy in the South Carolina college at Columbia, and discharged the duties of this chair till 1856. In 1857 he was appointed to the same professorship at Columbia college in New York, and subsequently accepted the chair of political science in the 66 law school of the same institution. During this long period he published numerous important works, among which are: A Manual of Political Ethics" (2 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1838), adopted by Harvard college as a text book, and commended by Kent and Story; "Legal and Political Hermeneutics, or Principles of Interpretation and Construction in Law and Politics" (1838); "Laws of Property: Essays on Property and Labor" (18mo, New York, 1842); and "Civil Liberty and Self-Government" (2 vols. 12mo, Philadelphia, 1853; new ed., 1874). Special branches of polity or civil administration also engaged his attention, particularly the subject of penal legislation, among his writings on which are: "Essays on Subjects of Penal Law and the Penitentiary System," published by the Philadelphia prison discipline society; an essay on the "Abuse of the Pardoning Power," republished by the legislature of New York; Remarks on Mrs. Fry's Views of Solitary Confinement," published in England; and a "Letter on the Penitentiary System," published by the legislature of South Carolina. Among his occasional papers are a "Letter on Anglican and Gallican Liberty;" a paper on the vocal sounds of Laura Bridgman, the blind deaf mute, compared with the elements of phonetic language, published in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge;" and numerous addresses on anniversary and other occasions. He published his inaugural address as professor in Columbia college on Individualism and Socialism or Communism," which he regarded as the two poles on which all human life turns; also his introductory discourse to a course of lectures on the state in the college law school, entitled "The Ancient and the Modern Teacher of Politics." In 1863 he was one of the founders of the loyal publication society, of which he served as president. More than 100 pamphlets were published under his supervision, of which 10 were by himself. His "Guerrilla Parties considered with Reference to the Law and Usages of War" (1862), written at the request of Gen. Halleck, was often quoted in Europe in the discussions evoked by the Franco-German war; and his "Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field" (1863) was ordered by President Lincoln to be promulgated in the general orders of the war department. In 1867 he published "Reflections on the Changes Necessary in the Present Constitution of the State of New York," "Memorial relative to Verdicts of Jurors," and "The Unanimity of Juries;" and in 1868 "International Copyright" and "Fragments of Political Science on Nationalism and Internationalism." As regards the exterior relations of political economy, he believed in free trade, and his pamphlet, "Notes on Fallacies of American Protectionists," was published in this country and in England. In 1865 he was appointed superintendent of a bureau at Washington for the preservation of the records of 66 the confederate government, and in 1870 he was chosen, by the united approval of the United States and Mexico, as final arbitrator in important cases pending between the two countries. This work was not completed at his death.-See "The Life, Character, and Writings of Francis Lieber," a lecture delivered before the historical society of Pennsylvania, by M. Russell Thayer (Philadelphia, 1873). II. Oscar Montgomery, son of the preceding, born in Boston, Sept. 8, 1830, died in Richmond, Va., June 27, 1862. He was educated in Berlin, Göttingen, and Freiberg. He was the author of "The Assayer's Guide," "The Analytical Chemist's Assistant," translated from the German of Wöhler (1852), Der Itacolumit, seine Begleiter und die Metallführing desselben (1860), and of various articles on mining in reference to this country in the New York "Mining Magazine." He was state geologist of Mississippi in 1850-'51; was engaged in the geological survey of Alabama in 1854-5; and from 1856 to 1860 held the office of mineralogical, geological, and agricultural surveyor of South Carolina. His first annual report of the last mentioned survey was published in 1857, and the fourth and last in 1860. In 1860 he accompanied the "American Astronomical Expedition" to Labrador as geologist. He joined the confederate army at the outbreak of the civil war, and died of wounds received in the battle of Williamsburg. LIEBHARD, Joachim. See CAMERARIUS. LIEBIG, Justus von, baron, a German chemist, born in Darmstadt, May 12, 1803, died in Munich, April 18, 1873. While a youth he was taught in the gymnasium of his native town; and, after spending ten months in an apothecary's establishment, he entered in 1819 the university of Bonn. Afterward at Erlangen he obtained the degree of M. D. By the assistance of the grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt he was enabled in 1822 to visit Paris, where he devoted two years to the study of chemistry. In 1824 he read a paper before the French institute on the chemical composition of fulminates, which attracted the attention of Humboldt, and by his influence Liebig was appointed adjunct professor of chemistry at Giessen. In 1826 he was made professor in the university, and soon established a laboratory for teaching practical chemistry, the first of the kind in Germany. It became a resort for students from different parts of the world, and especially from England, among whom are found the names of Lyon Playfair, Gregory, and Johnston. Hofmann, Will, and Fresenius were his assistants. In 1832 Liebig with Prof. Geiger of Heidelberg established the Annalen der Pharmacie, to which he continued to be a contributor till near the time of his death, and scarcely a volume of which up to 1862 does not contain some important paper by him. In 1838 he visited England, and at the meeting of the British association for the advancement of science read a paper on lithic acid, in which soon mal tissues and of the liquid compounds of the he announced the discovery by Wöhler of the composition of urea and the method of making it artificially. The association requested him to draw up two reports, one on isomeric bodies, the other on organic chemistry. The response was made in 1840, in a work dedicated to the British association, entitled Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur (Brunswick, 1840), which was translated into English from the manuscript by Dr. Lyon Playfair, under the title "Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology." In the preface Liebig states that his object in the work was "to develop, in a manner corre-wick, 1837-'64), and he contributed to Geiger's spondent to the present state of science, the fundamental principles of chemistry in general, and the laws of organic chemistry in particular, in their applications to agriculture and physiology; to the causes of fermentation, decay, and putrefaction; to the vinous and acetic fermentations; and to nitrification. The conversion of woody fibre into wood and mineral coal, the nature of poisons, contagions, and miasms, and the causes of their action on the living organism, have been elucidated in their chemical relations." This work was followed by the Chemische Briefe, which was translated into English under the title "Familiar Letters on Chemistry and its Relations to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture." The effect of these letters in Germany, as stated by Liebig in his preface to the English edition of 1843, was "to lead to the establishment of new professorships in the universities of Göttingen and Würzburg for the express purpose of facilitating the application of chemical truths to the practical arts of life, and of following up the new line of investigation and research, the bearing of chemistry upon physiology, medicine, and agriculture, which may be said to be only just begun." In June, 1842, Liebig presented to the British association a second report in response to their request of 1838. This was entitled Die Thierchemie oder organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie (Brunswick, 1842). It was translated into English from the author's manuscript by Prof. William Gregory and published as “Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology." Great practical good resulted from Liebig's investigations, which soon led to a better appreciation of the nature and proper application of medicines and food. This particular subject continued to occupy his attention, and papers frequently appeared in the Annalen and other scientific journals presenting the results of further investigations. These were embodied in two works, Chemische Untersuchungen über das Fleisch und seine Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel (Leipsic, 1847), and Die Ursachen der Säftebewegung im thierischen Organismus (Brunswick, 1848), translated by Prof. Gregory, "Researches on the Chemistry of Food," and "The Motions of the Juices in the Animal Body." The nature of the aniVOL. X.-27 Handbuch der Pharmacie (Heidelberg, 1839) the portion devoted to organic chemistry, which afterward appeared as a separate work. He also furnished in 1841 the organic portion of Dr. Turner's "Elements of Chemistry." In 1848 he established, in connection with Prof. Kopp, an annual report on the progress of chemistry, which, with the aid of others as contributors, has been continued to the present time. In 1855 appeared his Grundsätze der Agriculturchemie, in 1856 Theorie und Praxis der Landwirthschaft, and in 1859 Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die moderne Landwirthschaft, translations of which have been published in several languages. Liebig gave much attention to the subject of the utilization of the sewage of cities; and his letters setting forth the continual loss in fertilizing material which is experienced in all the great food-producing countries of the world, and which must be greatly augmented when the supplies of guano are exhausted, were read with no little interest by scientific and thoughtful men. The sewage of cities he regarded as the best source from which to restore this loss. Of late years his name has acquired a wide publicity in connection with his extractum carnis or essence of meat." One of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and his explanation of the phenomena as being due to the action of a substance whose molecules are in a state of transition upon the fermenting body was long and ably maintained, and cannot be said to be yet superseded, although there is a general tendency to the adoption of the strictly germ theory of Pasteur. His last investigation on the subject was published in 1870, in which he ably upholds his theory against Pasteur's explanation, and his views and arguments are as forcibly and clearly expressed as we find them in his early publications. His last communication to the Annalen is a notice of the discovery of chloroform, published in March, 1872, in which he calls attention to the fact that it was discovered by himself in 1831, and not by Soubeirain, as is generally supposed in Europe. -The influence which Liebig exerted on the progress of discovery in chemistry is due to his high powers of generalization united to indomitable perseverance. As a critic he was unsparing and sometimes bitter, but paid the greatest respect to truth and candor. As an author he was remarkable for the grace and | trated description of that edifice, with notices lucidity of his style, among the best examples of which are his "Familiar Letters on Chemistry." He was an enthusiast in regard to America, where he had many more readers than in any other country, and is said to have entertained at one time the idea of making the United States his residence. Many honors were conferred upon him by learned societies, public institutions, and individuals. By Louis II., grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, he was made a baron in 1845. Professorships were offered him in England, and at Heidelberg, Vienna, and other places. But he remained at Giessen till 1852, when he accepted the professorship of chemistry at Munich and the presidency of the chemical laboratory. In 1860 he was appointed president of the academy of sciences of Munich, as successor of Thiersch; and in 1861 he was elected foreign associate of the French academy of sciences. His collected works were published in 1874 simultaneously at Leipsic and Heidelberg. of its various residents (2 vols., London, 1874). LIÉGE (Ger. Lüttich). I. A province (Flem. Luikerland) of Belgium, bounded N. by Belgian and Dutch Limburg, E. by Rhenish Prussia, S. by Belgian Luxemburg, and S. W. and W. by Namur and Brabant; area, 1,119 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 592,177, nearly all Walloons and Roman Catholics. The W. portion is a fertile plain, while the S. and E. parts, which are traversed by an offshoot of the Ardennes, are woody, rocky, and hilly. The principal rivers are the Meuse and the Ourthe. The province is rich in potatoes, in sheep and cattle, and in mines and mineral springs, of which those of Chaudfontaine and Spa are the most celebrated. The chief manufactures are cotton goods, cloth, straw hats, wooden, glass, steel, and iron ware, surgical instruments, machines, and firearms. The principal places are Liége, Verviers, Seraing, and Huy. II. A city (Flem. Luik), capital of the province, in the middle of a plain surrounded by mountains, at the junction of the Meuse and the Ourthe, 56 m. E. S. E. of Brussels and 23 m. W. S. W. of Aix-la-Chapelle; pop. in 1870, 106,442. The Meuse, which is here crossed by four bridges, separates Liége into the old or upper and the new or lower town. The streets, excepting in the new part of the town and in some of the ten suburbs, are steep and narrow. The houses, which have a smoky and dingy appearance, are generally so high as to exclude the sun and confine the air. There are however 11 public squares, and the quays along the river afford pleasant promenades. The city is defended on the N. W. by a large citadel built on Mt. St. Walburge, and on the S. E. by Fort Chartreuse. The church of St. Jacques is the most remarkable architectural monument, its magnificent interior containing some of the finest specimens of tracery and fretwork in the world. There are more than 20 Roman Catholic churches, and a place of worship for Protestants. The palais de justice, formerly the palace of the prince bishop, occupying one side of the Place St. Lambert, built in 1533, is of imposing appearance, with a portico of composite columns, each carved with a different pattern. Liége is rich in educational, charitable, literary, and artistic institutions. The University place is adorned by statues of the LIECHTENSTEIN, an independent principality, which until 1866 formed part of the German confederation, bounded N. E. and E. by the Austrian circle of Vorarlberg, S. by the Swiss canton of Grisons, and W. by the Rhine, which separates it from the canton of St. Gall; area, 62 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 8,320. It has a mountainous surface, crossed by branches of the Alps, which however do not rise to any great height. The soil in most parts is fertile and well watered, producing flax, grain, wine, and fruit. Timber is abundant, and there is much excellent pasturage. Capital, Liechtenstein or Vaduz. The prince shares the legislative power with a diet consisting of 15 members, three of whom are appointed by him, the others being elected. The revenues amount to 60,000 florins, 16,000 being derived from the share in customs duties which by a treaty, renewed in 1864, is paid by Austria. The prince of Liechtenstein belongs to the family of Este, one of the oldest in central Europe; and although his sovereignty is so small, his estates in Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, covering nearly 2,200 sq. m., with a population of more than 600,000, render him one of the richest proprietors in Germany, his income from them being 1,400,000 florins. The family of Liechtenstein was raised to the rank of sovereign princes in the 17th century. Sev-native composer Grétry and the geologist Dueral of them have distinguished themselves by their public services, especially as soldiers. JOHANN JOSEPH (1760-1836) took a conspicuous part in the campaigns on the Rhine and in Italy, and concluded in 1805 the treaty of Presburg. His son, Prince ALOYS, born May 26, 1796, died Nov. 12, 1858. He was succeeded by his son JOHANN II., born Oct. 5, 1840, who is sovereign prince of Liechtenstein, duke of Troppau and of Jägerndorf, &c. His cousin, Prince Aloys, married in 1872 Miss Mary Fox, the adopted daughter of the last Lord Holland. She has published "Holland House," an illus mont; it also contains a botanic garden and various public buildings, besides the university. The latter, founded by the king of Holland in 1817, is attended by about 500 students. Connected with it are a school of mining and a polytechnic school (école des arts et manufactures). There are also an academy of painting, a conservatory of music, a theological seminary, a royal gymnasium, an institution for the deaf and dumb, a chamber of commerce, and a commercial tribunal. Liége, from its extensive iron works, and from its situation in a district abounding with coal and |