at his birth and before his eighth year appointed by Louis XI. of France abbot of FontDouce, and by Pope Sixtus IV. abbot of Passignano and prothonotary apostolic. At 13 he was created cardinal by Innocent VIII., whose son, Francesco Cibo, had married in 1487 Madalena, Giovanni's sister. No pains were omitted by Lorenzo to make his son worthy of his rank in the church. He graduated in theology and canon law at the university of Pisa, assumed for the first time the insignia of the cardinalate March 9, 1492, and went immediately to Rome, whence he was recalled to Florence a few weeks afterward by the death of his father. He fixed his residence there as legate of the holy see, opposed the election of Alexander VI. in August, 1492, and then returned to Florence. In 1494 he and his brothers were expelled by the citizens, and after living five years an exile and fugitive, he quitted Italy in 1499, and visited Germany, the Netherlands, and France, seeking everywhere the acquaintance of the learned. He returned to Rome in 1503, and lived there in retirement, making his house the resort of the most distinguished artists and men of letters in Italy. On the accession of Julius II. he was employed in the most important affairs. In 1506 he was appointed governor of Perugia, and subsequently legate of Bologna and commander of the papal troops in league with Spain against the French in Italy. In this capacity he was present at the battle of Ravenna, April 11, 1512, and was taken prisoner, but allowed to escape. The French having been driven out of Lombardy, Cardinal de' Medici employed the Spanish arms to reinstate his family at Florence. He was elected to succeed Julius II., March 11, 1513, received priest's orders March 15, was consecrated bishop on the 17th, was crowned on the 19th, and took possession of the Lateran April 11. Louis XII., who had been excommunicated and whose kingdom had been laid under an interdict by Julius II., was more than ever bent on conquering Lombardy. In March, 1513, he had signed at Blois a treaty with the Venetians, by which they promised to aid him in obtaining possession of Milan. The new pope instantly formed a counter treaty with Henry VIII., signed at Mechlin April 5, to which the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Aragon, and the Swiss cantons acceded, and which resulted in the defeat of the French at Novara, June 6. This warlike activity of Leo X. seemed in contradiction to the policy announced on the day after his election to King Sigismund I. of Poland, to whom he wrote to urge him to make peace with Albert of Brandenburg, alleging that he was sending legates to all Christian nations to dissuade them from making war on each other. Before his coronation, too, he chose as his secretaries the illustrious scholars Bembo and Sadoleto, and bestowed his first care on reconstructing the Roman gymnasium or university, founded by Eugenius IV., re vived and liberally endowed by Alexander VI., and neglected by the warlike Julius II. In 1514 it already counted 100 professors, the most eminent scientific body in Europe, teaching every branch of sacred and profane science, including medicinal botany for the first time. In 1513 Leo purchased on the Esquiline hill a large property on which he founded the Greek institute, and established a Greek press, encouraging at the same time the culture of all the oriental languages, and paying out of his own purse for the printing of Sante Pagnino's version of the Bible, and of Piero Valeriano's key to Egyptian hieroglyphics. He also enlarged the patronage extended to the fine arts by Julius II. He obtained the release from prison of the conspirators against his own family at Florence, called to Rome and protected there Piero Soderini their chief, as well as Machiavelli, and restored to favor and public life the Colonnas, disgraced under his predecessor. He reopened the fifth general council of Lateran, April 27, 1513, with great magnificence (see LATERAN, COUNCILS OF), and declared it to be his intention to continue its sessions until the establishment of a general peace among the princes of Christendom. He made his brother Giuliano de' Medici general of the papal armies, his nephew Lorenzo governor of Florence, and his cousin Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (afterward Clement VII.) archbishop of that city. At the same epoch King Emanuel of Portugal sent him a splendid embassy to offer him the first fruits of Albuquerque's conquests in the East Indies; and Leo in return conferred on Emanuel the investiture of the conquered countries. Louis XII. after the battle of Novara was reconciled with the pope, who induced him to become the ally and brother-in-law of Henry VIII., and agreed not to oppose by open force his pretensions to the duchy of Milan. Louis secretly pledged himself to expel the Spaniards from Naples; and a matrimonal alliance was arranged between the pope's brother Giuliano and Filiberta of Savoy, aunt of the duke d'Angoulême. The latter prince, on his accession as Francis I., Jan. 1, 1515, assumed the title of duke of Milan, and gained on Sept. 13 the memorable victory of Melegnano (Marignano). This was followed by a treaty with the pope, who gave up to Francis Parma and Piacenza, Bologna being annexed to the Papal States, and the authority of the Medici reëstablished in Flor ence. Leo and Francis met in Bologna in December, 1515, and agreed upon a concordat, afterward promulgated in the Lateran council, March 16, 1517. By this the king repealed the pragmatic sanction of Bourges (1438), guaranteed to the pope the collection of annates and tithes, and obtained the right of nomination to all episcopal sees and principal benefices in France. Francis vainly interceded for the duke of Urbino, who, guilty of rebellion against Julius II. and Leo himself, had killed with his own hand in the open street Cardinal Alidori, archbishop of Pavia. The duchy of Urbino was subsequently bestowed on Lorenzo de' Medici, the pope's nephew, after whose death it reverted to the church. Siena was also annexed; but the measures adopted for this purpose gave rise to a conspiracy against the life of the pontiff, in which Cardinal Petrucci, whose family were sovereigns of Siena, and several other members of the sacred college were implicated. Petrucci was strangled in prison, June 3, 1517, and the others were condemned to pay enormous fines. In order to bind the college of cardinals more securely to his person, Leo created 31 new cardinals, most of whom were Florentines. The treaty of Noyon, concluded between France and Spain, Aug. 13, 1516, was intended to be a definitive settlement of the affairs of northern and southern Italy, in direct opposition to the pope's policy. Leo endeavored to counteract this settlement by the treaty of London, Oct. 29. But the emperor Maximilian by becoming a party to both defeated Leo's purpose; while the treaty of Fribourg made by Francis I. with the Swiss cantons, Nov. 29, deprived the pope of his most faithful allies. During the treacherous peace which followed this settlement and the conspiracy of Petrucci, Leo and his cardinals displayed their taste for magnificence and the encouragement of literature and art. The council of the Lateran was closed with great solemnity in 1517; and a bull was published urging all Christian princes to form a league against the Turks, and granting indulgences to all who joined in the crusade, or contributed toward paying its expenses. The building of the new basilica of St. Peter's was pushed forward; and the lavish expenditure of the pope having exhausted his treasury, an indulgence was offered to all who would give money toward the construction. This occasioned the quarrel in Germany between the Augustinian monk Martin Luther and the Dominicans, and led step by step to the reformation. Leo, who looked upon the first movements of this great religious revolution as a quarrel between monks, who also admired Luther's genius and wished to conciliate him, summoned him, Aug. 7, 1518, to appear in Rome within 60 days; but irritated him by ordering the legate at the imperial court to examine him in Germany, and, if found heretical in doctrine and refractory, to send him a prisoner to Rome. The compromise effected by the conference of Augsburg only made Luther appeal from the pope misinformed to the pope better informed; and when Leo's bull of Nov. 9, 1518, defined the right of the Roman pontiff to grant indulgences and explained their nature, Luther appealed from the bull to a general council. At the solicitation of the kings of Hungary and Poland, whose dominions were continually threatened by the Turks, he sent the most eminent among his cardinals to the European courts to advise the formation of a common league against the foes of Christendom. He | submitted to the sovereigns the plan of a combined attack by land and sea against the Turkish empire, he himself promising to sail from Ancona with 100 armed vessels to join the allied fleets. At the same time he proclaimed a general truce for five years, which was accepted by the sovereigns; but nothing more than a defensive league was effected between England, France, and Spain, with the pope at its head, which served to check temporarily the advance of the Turks. Leo made a second effort to conciliate Luther, and a conciliatory letter from Luther was answered by a pacific one from Rome. But public theological discussions revived the zeal of the reformer, and a bull was at length issued, June 15, 1520, condemning his writings as heretical. This Luther burned publicly at Wittenberg, Dec. 10. In 1521 the cause of the American Indians was brought to Leo's tribunal by both Franciscans and Dominicans, the former endeavoring to justify the Spanish system of reducing them to slavery. Leo condemned the system, and employed his utmost endeavors to prevail on the king of Spain to repress it. In April, 1518, Leo gave his nephew Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, in marriage to a relative of the French king, and in return had to surrender the cities of Reggio and Modena. From these nuptials sprung Catharine de' Medici, queen of France. At the death of the emperor Maximilian, Jan. 12, 1519, Leo sent his own relative Cardinal Orsini to Francis I. to urge him to oppose the election of Charles of Spain, and, if possible, to secure the nomination of some inferior German prince. Orsini failed in his main purpose; Francis used his utmost endeavors and even open bribery, but only to secure the imperial crown for himself. Charles V., however, was elected emperor, June 28, and immediately demanded the pope's permission, as the public jurisprudence of the age required, to retain his Spanish possessions together with the imperial title. The pope having assented in spite of the remonstrances of the French king, the latter determined on war. It appears certain that Leo resolved at this conjuncture to execute Julius II.'s project of expelling from Italy both French and Spaniards, by taking advantage of the dissensions between the two monarchs. He sent 150,000 gold crowns to Switzerland, and obtained a body of 6,000 Swiss auxiliaries; proposed to Francis I. to unite with him in an attack upon the kingdom of Naples; stipulating that Gaeta and the whole Neapolitan territory north of the Garigliano should be given to the church, that the remainder should be held for the second son of Francis, then an infant, and that an apostolic nuncio should govern for him till his majority. Francis meanwhile permitted the pope's Swiss auxiliaries to pass through the Milanese to the Romagna and the march of Ancona. Perugia was at this time forcibly annexed to the Papal States, and an attempt was made on Ferrara. Francis, divining the He pope's real design, broke off the pending ne- He employed Michel Angelo and Raphael in gotiations, and Leo openly united his forces the execution of some of their greatest works. with those of the emperor for the avowed pur- His munificence might well entitle the reign of pose of wresting from the French the duchy Leo X. to rank as the golden age of Italian art of Milan and Genoa. By a treaty concluded and letters. "Happy is it for the world," says with Charles V., May 8, 1521, Francesco Sforza Roscoe, "when the pursuits of such individwas to be restored to his dominions, Parma and uals, instead of being devoted, through blind Piacenza were to be given back to the church, ambition, to the subjugation or destruction of and the emperor was to aid the pope in annex- the human race, are directed toward those ing Ferrara, and to bestow the duchy of Cività beneficent and generous ends which, amid all di Penna in the kingdom of Naples on the son his avocations, Leo the Tenth appears to have of the late duke of Urbino. The treaty was kept continually in view." See Audin, Hisnot made public till July 8. Prospero Colon- toire de Léon X. (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1844), and na with the Spaniards from Naples joined the Roscoe's "Life and Pontificate of Leo X." (6th papal forces at Bologna, crossed the Po at ed. revised, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1853). V. Casalmaggiore, and joined the Swiss, whose | Leo XII. (ANNibale della GENGA), born in the countrymen in the French service now deserted territory of Spoleto, Aug. 2, 1760, died Feb. to the papal standard. After a series of suc- 10, 1829. Before his elevation to the pontificesses the allied army entered Milan Nov. 19; cate he was papal nuncio at several German Parma and Piacenza were next occupied; but courts, and was sent to France on a special the duke of Ferrara defended his dominions to mission by Pius VII., whom he succeeded in the last extremity against the spiritual and the papacy, Sept. 28, 1823. He governed the temporal arms of the pontiff. Leo received church with a firmness which involved him the intelligence of the capture of Milan and the in disputes with France and Austria, and adrecovery of Parma and Piacenza on Nov. 23. ministered the affairs of his temporal dominAmid the rejoicings consequent on these events ions with great zeal for the good of his subhe felt a sudden indisposition on the 24th, which jects. He exerted himself to suppress briganexcited no alarm, and died unexpectedly on dage and mendicity, promote education and Dec. 1, it is said without the sacraments of the literature, and suppress secret societies. church. His death has been by some writers published a jubilee for the year 1825, and in attributed to poison; but nothing certain about a circular letter to the Christian nations atits cause or manner is found in authentic con- tacked Bible societies. He entered into negotemporary accounts.-The character of Leo tiations with the republics of South America has been judged with more prejudice and dis- for the purpose of filling up the many sees crepancy than that of almost any other per- left vacant during their wars with Spain; orson known in history. He has been accused ganized in a most efficient manner the Sapiof political insincerity, of adding treachery enza university in Rome, and regulated its to injustice in his annexation of neighbor- five faculties of theology, law, medicine, phiing states, of an inordinate anxiety for the ag- losophy, and philology; increased the number grandizement of his family, and of many fail- of professors, and raised their salaries. ings which, however readily pardoned in a manifested the design of reforming thoroughly great prince, become odious in a Christian church and state, and published in October, priest. But whatever estimate we form of 1824, a motu proprio or decree reorganizing his foreign policy, it must be acknowledged the administration of the Papal States. that he governed his own subjects with wis- corrected abuses in the convents and monasdom and justice, and his reign was long grate-teries of Rome, and established order and sefully remembered by the Romans as an era curity by means of a good police. of happiness and prosperity. Engaging and affable in manners, gay or dignified as occasion demanded, and gifted with great powers of conversation, he charmed all with whom he came in contact. His private life both before and after his elevation to the throne was chaste and decorous. He was generous to excess, magnificent in his tastes, passionately fond of the chase, but temperate in the pleasures of the table. Though not a profound scholar, and accused of neglecting the studies best fitted to his station, he was well versed in the lighter branches of literature and a proficient in the art of music. He delighted above all things in the society of artists, poets, and learned men. He increased the Vatican library, and restored the celebrated library of his family (the Laurentian at Florence), which had been plundered and dispersed at the time of their expulsion. He He LEO I., Flavius, surnamed the Thracian and the Great, a Byzantine emperor, born in Thrace about A. D. 400, died in January, 474. At the death of Marcian in 457 he was only a military tribune; but being proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, the choice was confirmed by the senate, and he was crowned by the patriarch Anatolius, this being the first instance of a prince receiving his crown from the hands of a bishop. He continued the measures of his predecessor against the Eutychians in Alexandria, successfully encountering the opposition of his minister, the Arian chief Aspar, by whose influence he had been raised to the throne. In 466 the Huns invaded Dacia and threatened the eastern empire, but were defeated by the generals of Leo, their principal chief Dengizec, a son of Attila, being killed. In 468 he concerted with Anthemius, the emperor of the West, an ex pedition against Genseric, king of the Vandals | volt in the capital, the latter of which was in Africa. Under the command of Basiliscus more than 1,000 ships, each with 100 men, came to land near Carthage, but were attacked by night with fire ships, and the whole fleet was destroyed or dispersed. This disastrous result was charged upon Aspar, who with one of his sons escaped from a popular tumult only to be assassinated by a band of the emperor's body guard within the precincts of the palace. The Arian followers of Aspar encouraged the intrigues of Ricimer in the West, and incited the Goths to invade Thrace, and for two years to threaten Constantinople. Among the extraordinary events of this reign were the destruction of Antioch by an earthquake (458), a conflagration in Constantinople (465), immense and destructive inundations (469), and an eruption of Vesuvius (472), which, according to all the historians, was not only felt at Constantinople, but caused showers of ashes which covered the roofs of houses with a coat three inches thick. LEO III., Flavius, surnamed the Isaurian, a Byzantine emperor, born in Isauria about 680, died June 18, 741. The son of a farmer who emigrated from Asia Minor to Thrace, he joined the army under Justinian II., was rapidly promoted, and in 713 was appointed by Anastasius II. to the supreme command of the troops in Asia, where he held the field against the Saracens. When in 716 the crown was seized by Theodosius III., Leo declared him a usurper, outwitted and avoided the Arab general Muslima, marched upon Constantinople, forced him to resign (March, 718), and became himself master of the empire. The Saracens immediately appeared with an immense army and fleet before Constantinople. This siege, under Omar II., the third by the Saracens, lasted two years, and so powerful were the Mohammedan armaments that the provinces expected the downfall of Leo, the western kingdoms heard that a caliph had ascended the Byzantine throne, and two schemes of rebellion were plotted, which were quickly suppressed when the triumph of the emperor was known. The Arab fleet was routed in two engagements, and partially consumed by the Greek fire, and few of the ships regained the harbors of Syria. In 726 Leo promulgated an edict for the removal of images from all the churches of the empire, and thus inaugurated the party of the iconoclasts, and a conflict of nearly 120 years. He was opposed by Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople, John the Damascene, and John Chrysorrhoas in the East, and by Popes Gregory II. and III. in the West. The iconoclasts were condemned in 732 by a council assembled at Rome; an expedition sent by the emperor into Italy to reduce the cities opposed to the edict failed in its object, and the exarchate of Ravenna was transferred from the Greeks to the Lombards (734). In the East, there was a rebellion in the Peloponnesus and the Cyclades, and a re quelled only after much bloodshed. The professors in the schools of Constantinople favored the use of images, and the emperor is said to have therefore ordered the library of St. Sophia to be burned. It is more probable, however, that this library of 36,000 volumes was accidentally destroyed in some conflagration. After the check which his forces experienced in Italy, he transferred Greece and Illyria from the spiritual authority of the popes to that of the patriarchs of Constantinople. The latter years of his reign were occupied with violent wars with the Saracens. An adventurer, who claimed to be Tiberius, a son of Justinian II., was supported by the caliph, and made his entry into Jerusalem in the garb of a Roman emperor. In 739 the Arab general Solyman invaded the Roman territories with 90,000 men, in three divisions, but retreated into Syria after the defeat of one of the bodies in a pitched battle in Phrygia. In 740 an earthquake caused calamities throughout the empire, demolishing a part of the walls of Constantinople, and destroying whole towns in Thrace and Egypt. LEO V., Flavius, surnamed the Armenian, a Byzantine emperor, reigned from 813 to 820. He was of noble Armenian descent, distinguished himself as a general under Nicephorus I. (802-811), was exiled for treachery, but soon recalled by Michael I., and appointed commander of the troops in Asia. Michael was chiefly unpopular as the husband of the masculine and presuming Procopia, and his downfall and the elevation of Leo had been foretold by an Asiatic prophetess. In 813 Leo and the emperor led an expedition against the Bulgarians, and were defeated in a battle near Adrianople. Michael withdrew to Constantinople, leaving a disaffected army under the command of Leo, who was the secret cause of the defeat, and whose friends now persuaded the soldiers to proclaim him emperor. The rebel army marched toward the capital, and to avoid civil war Michael resigned to the conspirators the keys of the city and the palace, and retired to a convent. The Bulgarians immediately appeared before Constantinople, desolated its suburbs, captured Adrianople, and reduced Thrace to a desert, but suffered a terrible defeat by Leo at Mesembria in 814. In 815 he invaded their territory, obtained a truce for 30 years, and by his fierce onsets left such an impression on these hereditary enemies of the Byzantine empire that they remained quiet during 74 years. Educated in a camp, he reformed the civil government by introducing into it the strictness of military discipline, and his incessant oversight and formidable punishments improved the administration both in the capital and the provinces. He protected the iconoclasts, and his severity against the advocates of images created numerous enemies. Michael the Stammerer had contributed largely to his elevation, and had been his stanch ad herent, but after repeated warnings was found | passioned speakers in political clubs. In conguilty of treason, and was sentenced to death. junction with Mme. Jaclard, wife of a member On the day appointed for his execution a band of the commune, she founded in March, 1871, of priests and chanters was admitted into the La Sociale newspaper. She was under arrest palatial chapel to sing matins. A body of con- for a short time at Versailles after the overspirators, friends of Michael, mingled with this throw of the commune, and subsequently went procession, in the ecclesiastical habit, with to Switzerland, where she took a prominent swords under their robes, and at a given signal part in the meetings of the internationale. they rushed upon the emperor, who perished at the altar, after bravely defending himself with the great cross. LEO VI., Flavius, surnamed the Philosopher, a Byzantine emperor, born about 865, ascended the throne in 886, died in 911. He was associated with his father Basil I. in the government two years before he succeeded him. Narrowly escaping from a false accusation of parricide made by the minister Santabaren and the patriarch Photius, he began his reign by banishing one of them and deposing the other. From 887 to 891 he warred against the Saracens in Asia Minor and Italy. The mismanagement of the prime minister Stylianus, who disregarded the privileges of Bulgarian merchants, occasioned a severe war with that people, which Leo terminated in 894 by involving the Bulgarians in hostilities with the Hungarians. The inactivity of the emperor exposed him to a series of conspiracies, and invited new attacks by the Saracens, who in 904 captured and plundered Thessalonica. In 911 they defeated the Greek fleet near Samos. Leo combined the legislative and executive powers in his own person, and extinguished the last remains of the authority of the senate. He was excluded from the communion of the faithful on account of his fourth nuptials, the Greek church tolerating only a second marriage. His title of Philosopher he received for having written several works on theological and profane subjects. The "Basilics," or imperial constitutions, being a Greek translation and revision of Justinian's Corpus Juris, with the addition of subsequent constitutions, were begun under Basil I., and completed under Leo and Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The principal writings attributed to Leo are 33 orations, chiefly on theological subjects, an important treatise on military tactics, and a work on "Oracles," in which the fates of the empire are foretold by the arts of astrology and divination. LEO, André, a French novelist (who adopted the Christian names of her twins as her nom de plume, her real name being LEONIE CHAMPSEIX), born at Champagné, Vienne, about 1832. She is the daughter of M. Béra, a naval officer, and she married in 1851 Pierre Grégoire Champseix, a socialistic publicist, who then lived in exile at Lausanne, and who died in Paris, Dec. 4, 1863. Her principal works are: Le mariage scandaleux (1863); Une vieille fille et les deux filles de M. Plichon (1864); Le divorce, and Jacques Galleron (1865). She also appeared as a lecturer on social questions and on woman's rights, and during the siege of Paris in 1870-'71 she was one of the most imVOL. X.-23 LEO, Heinrich, a German historian, born in Rudolstadt, March 19, 1799. He was educated at Breslau and Jena, and went to Berlin in 1822, where he was an enthusiastic disciple of Hegel. In 1824 he published Entwickelung der Verfassung der lombardischen Städte. In 1830 he was elected professor of history in the university of Halle, which post he still held in 1874. In 1863 he was made perpetual member of the Prussian house of lords. In early life he vigorously defended Hegelianism and political liberalism, and in later years as earnestly opposed them. His principal controversial writings against liberal tendencies are: Herr Dr. Diesterweg und die deutschen_Universitäten (1836); Sendschreiben an Görres (1838); Die Hegelingen (1838); and Signatura Temporis (1849). He has also written several works pertaining to Germanic and Celtic antiquities. He has contributed largely to the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung and other periodicals. Among his more important historical works are: Handbuch der Geschichte des Mittelalters (1830); Geschichte der italienischen Staaten (5 vols., 1829-30); Zwölf Bücher niederländischer Geschichte (2 vols., 1882-'5); Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte (3d ed., 6 vols., 1849-'53); Leitfaden für den Unterricht in der Universalgeschichte (4 vols., 1838– '40); and Vorlesungen über die Geschichte des deutschen Volks und Reichs (5 vols., 1854-'67). LEO AFRICANUS (originally AL-HASSAN IBN MOHAMMED), a Moorish traveller, born in Granada, Spain, about 1485, died about 1526. While he was a child, his parents removed to Africa, and settled at Fez, then a magnificent Mohammedan city. At the age of 16 he accompanied his uncle on a mission to Timbuctoo, and remained there four years. Afterward he explored various parts of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco, and journeyed among the wild Arab tribes of the desert. In 1513 he visited the kingdoms of Tlemcen and Algiers. On his return from this journey, which extended to Tunis and the desert of Barca, he went to Timbuctoo for the second time, and thence proceeded 400 miles southward as far as the city of Gago. Thence turning to the eastward, he traversed Bornoo and Nubia, and visited the ruins of Thebes. From Egypt he travelled into Turkey, Persia, and other oriental countries, but we have no narrative of his adventures there. Returning by sea from Constantinople, he was captured by Christian corsairs and carried to Rome in 1517. Here he was presented to Pope Leo X., who bestowed upon him a handsome pension, had him instructed in the principles of Christianity, and gave him |