TABLE 652.-Per cent of foreign-born male employees who speak English, by age at time of coming to the United States and race.

(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)

[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 100 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all non-English-speaking races.]

Of 1,487 foreign-born male employees in this locality, for whom information was obtained, 38.5 per cent speak English, the proportion of Germans with this ability, as contrasted with the proportions of the other races, being very high.

Of those who were under 14 years of age at time of arrival in the United States, 90.1 per cent speak English, as compared with 35.9 per cent of those who were 14 years of age or over at time of coming. Among those races reporting proportions both under 14 and 14 years of age or over at time of coming to the United States, it will be noted that in each instance the proportion under 14 who now speak English is in excess of that shown for those 14' years of age or over. The greatest gain in ability to speak English among those under 14 years of age on arrival in this country over those 14 years of age or over is shown by the Slovaks, the difference in the proportions being 49.3. This gain, it will be noted, is very much higher than that shown by the South Italians, who in turn show a much larger gain than do the Germans, the difference in the proportions of those under 14 and 14 years of age or over among this race being but 5.6 per cent. Among the several races, however, the representatives of which were 14 years of age or over at time of coming to the United States, the Russians show the smallest proportion who now speak English, or 8.4 per cent, while the Germans, with 94.4 per cent, show the largest proportion.

The progress made in acquiring the use of the English lanuage is set forth in the following table, which shows, by years in the United States and race of employee, the percentage of foreign-bor male employees who were able to speak English:

TABLE 653,-Per cent of foreign-born male employees who speak English, by years in the United States and race.

(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)

[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 100 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all nonEnglish-speaking races.]

From information obtained for 1,487 foreign-born male employees in this locality, it will be seen that of those who have been in the United States under five years 20.9 per cent speak English, as compared with 59.8 per cent of those who have been in the United States from five to nine years and 88.7 per cent with a residence of ten years or over. Thus it will be seen that their ability to speak English is materially increased by length of residence in the United States. This is evidently true, with but one exception, of each race where proportions are reported in two or more periods of residence. The exception above noted is found in the case of the South Italians. who have been in the United States ten years or over, in which residence group a slightly smaller proportion speak English than in the group immediately preceding. As illustrating the above general statement, it will be seen that the Germans report 78.6 per cent of those who have been in the United States under five years who speak English, as compared with 93.8 and 98.1 per cent of those who have been in the United States from five to nine years and ten years or over, respectively. The greatest progress, however, on the part of the representatives of any one race is noted among the Russians, the proportion with ability to speak English increasing from 5.1 per cent of those who have been in the United States less than five years to 80 per cent of those with a residence of from five to nine years.

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THE BIRMINGHAM DISTRICT.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

The Birmingham district-Industrial history-Obstacles and inducements to immigration-Households studied-Members of households for whom detailed information was secured-Employees for whom information was secured-[Text Tables 654 to 658 and General Tables 375 to 377].

THE BIRMINGHAM DISTRICT.

What is known as the Birmingham district includes the counties of Jefferson, Walker, and Bibb in the State of Alabama. The district is included in the Cahaba district, according to the geologic classification, so named because it is in the basin drained by the Cahaba River. It is by far, taking into consideration the coal and iron-ore mining and the iron and steel production, the most important coal, iron, and steel center of the South. Alabama as a State ranks fifth in the production of coal, and 90 per cent of the total coal output of the State is from the territory included in the Birmingham district. The district includes the city of Birmingham, the smaller cities of Ensley and Bessemer, and numerous towns and villages. Ensley has recently been annexed to Birmingham, together with several other nearby towns and communities, so that the city proper takes in a large part of the closely settled section of the district. For the most part the surrounding towns and villages are communities which are growing up around coal and ore mines and the various iron and steel plants. With the exception of the original city of Birmingham, they are purely industrial settlements, and there is a growing tendency to develop into a large industrial comentmunity with the business and shopping center in old Birmingham and the industrial sections wherever the plants and mines may be Es located.

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The chief industrial community is Ensley, where the largest steel plants are located, as well as several other smaller plants. Near Ensley are several groups of coal mines on what is known as the Pratt vein, and mining communities are situated at short intervals. Toward Birmingham proper is Pratt City, where coal mines and coke ovens are operated, and a few miles farther is Thomas, where blast furnaces are situated. North of these places are various coalmining communities. South of Birmingham and toward Bessemer is a range of mountains dotted with iron-ore mining settlements, the mines being operated by the iron and steel companies of the district. Coal mines are also found farther south, with settlements and small towns. At Bessemer are located several small industries and several furnaces and rolling mills. The chief mining communities are

Republic, Cardiff, Pratt City, Wylam, Brookside, Sayreton, and Lewisburg. There are numerous other communities composed entirely of employees living near the openings along the line of the coal or ore veins, making the whole district a fairly well-settled section.

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY.

The industrial history of the Birmingham district, as well as the city of Birmingham, dates from about 1870. The city itself was laid off in 1871, although the movement to develop the coal and other mineral resources of the section began as early as 1854. The building of two railroads for this development was not completed, however, until after the civil war, and it was not until then that a community of considerable size existed. Even in 1880, a population of only 3,086 was credited to Birmingham, although other settlements around the mines existed. By 1890 Birmingham proper, however, contained more than 26,000 people, and the 1900 census gave it a population of nearly 40,000, with over 12,000 population in the neighboring towns of Bessemer, Ensley, Pratt City, Cardiff, and Brookside, in addition to which there were a large number of mining villages.

Practically no coal was mined in Alabama prior to the civil war. The same may be said of ore mining and iron manufacture. In 1870, however, several mines were started, and by 1880 about 250,000 short tons were mined in the Birmingham district. This was rapidly increased to 3,000,000 tons in 1890 and nearly 10,000,000 tons in 1902. Iron-ore properties also began to be developed to an appreciable extent between 1870 and 1880. In 1880 nearly 150,000 long tons were mined in this district, 1,250,000 in 1890, and about 3,000,000 tons in 1902. Charcoal furnaces had been operated on a small scale even prior to the civil war, but it was not until 1876 that the first coke furnace was started. This was followed by other furnaces in 1880 and in 1882. Open-hearth furnaces were put into operation in 1888. In 1898 a large steel plant was completed at Ensley and put into operation, establishing the district as an important steel center in the South. Other furnaces were built about ten years later. Rolling mills and blast furnaces were also established at Bessemer, and within the last decade a number of plants manufacturing special iron and steel products, such as pipe, frogs, switches, and similar products, have been started in the district. Since 1900 the number of plants of all kinds has increased to a remarkable extent, and the total output of iron and steel products in the district will probably show in the last decade an increase of over 60 per cent.

As now constituted, the city proper is situated well in the center of the Birmingham district. Within its limits are practically all of the furnaces and the mills, with the exception of those at Bessemer, 10 miles away, and immediately north of the city is a ring of coal mines which extend on either side, east and west. South of the city are the greater number of the ore mines of the district, and in the center of the circle thus rudely suggested are extensive limestone quarries.

It will be seen from the brief summary above that the most rapid development has taken place since 1890, and especially since 1900. That this fact does possess an important significance in the study of

the immigrant in the industries of the Birmingham district may be stated as follows:

First. The rather gradual development of the district as a mining and steel center did not create a demand for labor which was strong enough to necessitate the importation or the immigration of foreignborn labor. The surrounding country in the State, and possibly in the adjoining States, possessed a sufficient surplus of labor supply to allow enough additional employees to come to Birmingham to satisfy the slowly growing demand. Thus, up until about 1894, the labor employed in the district was composed almost entirely of native whites and negroes. A very few English, Welsh, and Scotch drifted in from northern mining and steel centers. As a matter of fact, no urgent demand upon the general labor market of the nation at large was made until about 1905, when in a period of unusual activity which lasted until 1908, it was found that the usual number of available native whites and negroes in Alabama and the adjoining southern States was not sufficient to supply the rapidly growing demand. It was discovered also that other industries in the South and the North were depleting the southern labor supply.

Second. The demand for immigrant labor made itself evident upon the following occasions:

(1) During the coal-miners' strike of 1904.

(2) During the coal-miners' strike of 1908.

(3) During the periods of unusual industrial activity, 1905 to 1907, and 1909, until the present time.

The first two periods will be seen to be unusual, or rather periods not postulated by the normal development of the district, but the last two are unquestionably the results of natural conditions. The largest employers of labor in the district state that under normal conditions, at the present stage of the industrial development of the district, the ordinary labor supply which may be relied upon continuously affords about 50 per cent of the total necessary to operate all plants and mines at their full capacity. The smaller employers, on the other hand, assert that so far as they are concerned the supply of native labor is sufficient. The truth of the situation appears to be that there is what may be termed a "residual" supply of native labor fairly well distributed all over the district. This residual or basic supply is sufficient for the needs of the smaller operator or the small iron and steel producer. The operation of these mines, a large majority of which produce for the retail trade alone and the special iron and steel producers, is not subject to great increases or reductions. They employ from 25 to 100 and 150 men each, and are not disturbed by fluctuations in the supply of labor. The larger plants and coal operators, as well as the newer ones, who have expanded the most rapidly and have constituted the chief growth of the district, are most affected. They are dissatisfied with the situation for the following reasons:

1. The "residual" labor supply is unsatisfactory. In the first place, the number of native whites who can be drawn upon to furnish additional labor as the demand grows is very small. Secondly, they are, for the most part, not adapted to conditions. They come from the agricultural districts, and the majority are willing to work only during the winter months. Thirdly, the negroes, it is claimed, while possessing many excellent qualities, such as capacity for heavy work