the cutters' union. Nearly 1,200 of the women workers are affiliated with the unions. Practically 36 per cent of the total number of clothing workers in New York are organized, while 80 per cent of the cutters are members of the cutters' union. Of the organized workers about 60 per cent are Russian and Polish Hebrews, 30 per cent Italians, and 10 per cent persons of other races including foreign and native born. The connection between these facts is shown by the regularity of hours worked per day and the wages of the cutters, as compared with the other clothing workers who are not so strongly organized. Very few of the manufacturers, however, will admit that the trades unions have any influence with them in fixing the hours of work and wages.

Previous to 1905 the cutters' union was very strong, and nearly every shop in New York employed union men in its cutting department. In that year there was a strike in which the "closed shop" was the issue and the cutters nominally lost. As matters now stand, the manufacturers, as a class, say that their shops are open; but the large majority of the cutters are union men and they work union hours. In other words, the "open shop" is claimed but as a fact it does not exist. The strength of this union is recognized to the extent that when a vacancy occurs in the cutting departments of the several concerns the man recommended by the union is generally given the place.

The unions of the workers in the other occupations in the industry are not so strong, and have little effect in fixing either wages or hours. This is due to the irregularity of the work, to the contract system, and to the strong hold that the piecework system has upon the industry. Owing to the character of the goods made, the work is necessarily done by seasons. In May, June, and July, for instance, fall and winter clothes are being made, and summer clothes in October, November, December, and January. These are the busiest months in the year. While some manufacturers work throughout the year, it is the general practice to manufacture only suits for which orders have previously been received. The early custom was to manufacture and then sell, but now the companies sell before they manufacture.

One of the larger operators stated that the cutters lose from two to three months of work each year, while the tailors lose from three to four months. Most of the tailors employed by this company are Italians and Russian Hebrews. The wages in the shops are paid by the week. This operator claims that his employees prefer to work longer hours by the piece, under less favorable conditions, or some contractor and earn slightly more than the operator would have paid. It is not a matter of a sanitary factory or of short hours with the clothing workers but merely one of earnings. At the end of the day they count not the hours worked but their earnings.

CHAPTER V.

SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS.

Literacy-Conjugal condition-Visits abroad-Age classification of employees-[Text Tables 112 to 118, General Tables 62 to 66].

LITERACY.

The degree of general literacy among the employees in New York is exhibited by the following table, which shows by sex and general nativity and race the percentage of employees who read and the percentage who read and write:

TABLE 112.-Per cent of employees who read and per cent who read and write, by sex and general nativity and race.

(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)

[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

Of 7,115 persons, 4,635 are males and 2,480 are females. Of the total 88.7 per cent are able to read and 86.9 per cent are able both to read and read and write. All of the native-born of native father report 100 per cent in each branch of literacy, and the native-born of foreign father occupy second place, showing slightly under 100

per cent proficient in reading and reading and writing, the standard of the foreign-born being considerably lower than either of the other groups. Throughout this table the males maintain a generally higher proportion who can read or both read and write than do the females.

All German males can read and write, but the proportion of females is somewhat lower, making the average of the race for both sexes 99.3 per cent. The Magyars show 98.2 per cent who can read and write. The Lithuanians and North Italians are the most illiterate of the races studied.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

The table next presented shows, according to sex and general nativity and race, the percentage of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition.

TABLE 113.-Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by sex and general nativity and race.

(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)

[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

TABLE 113.-Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by sex and general nativity and race-Continued.

Of the 4,185 males who are included in the above table, 67.6 per cent are married, 1.9 per cent are widowed, and 30.5 per cent are single. The proportion of married males is almost double the proportion of married females, while the latter report many more widowed persons than do the former. The males who are native-born of foreign father show a much smaller proportion of married persons than do the foreign-born. Among the foreign-born races the Germans and Magyars each report over 80 per cent as married. These are the highest proportions. The Poles report the largest proportion of single males.

While 40.2 per cent of the foreign-born females are married, only 9.5 per cent of the native-born of foreign father are in that conjugal condition. Among the foreign-born races, none of the Russian females are married, 85.2 per cent being single and 14.8 per cent being widowed. The North Italians show the largest proportion of married females, 61.3 per cent. The South Italians show a proportion that is almost as large, 56.8 per cent. The Poles show the largest proportion of widowed persons, or 15 per cent.

Almost 6,000 persons, male and female, reported complete data for the foregoing table. Of that number slightly more than half, or 58.8 per cent, are married, less than 5 per cent are widowed, and 37.7 per cent are single. When compared with the native-born of foreign father, the foreign-born show a much larger proportion of married persons and a smaller proportion of persons who are widowed. Nearly 55 per cent of the native-born of foreign father are single, as compared with 35.5 per cent of the foreign-born. Slightly more than 50 per cent of the whites native-born of native father are single and only 5 per cent are widowed. Among the foreign-born races, the Poles show the smallest proportion of married persons. The proportion is 49 per cent. Over 60 per cent each of the Germans, Russian Hebrews, Hebrews other than Russian, North Italians, and Magyars are married. The Germans show the largest proportion of widowed

persons, 8.1 per cent.

The Russian Hebrews show the smallest pro

portion of widowed persons.

The following table divides the data of the preceding table, and shows, by sex and age groups and by general nativity and race, the per cent of employees in each conjugal condition:

TABLE 114.-Per cent of employees in each conjugal condition, by sex, age groups, and general nativity and race.

(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)

[This table includes only races with 200 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]