CHAPTER VI. INTERNATIONAL WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS. Need of Uniformity in Weights, Measures, and Coins.-Memorial of the Society of Arts for a Uniform System.--Decimalisation of the Coinage.-Formation of the International Decimal Association.-Introduction of the Metric System of Weights and Measures. - International Coinage.— Practical Achievements. BESIDES imparting a stimulus to industrial education, the international exhibitions have from the first directed attention to the importance of securing uniformity in the weights, measures, and coins of all countries. For purposes of commerce it would be decidedly convenient were one common system established. In ancient times the Latin tongue was the universal language of science. Amidst the jargon of the many hordes of barbarians who invaded Europe on the destruction of the Roman empire, men of science could speak to one another in a language common to them all. And so when we endeavoured to solve the problems of the industrial and scientific discoveries with which these great exhibitions abounded, the want came home to all of us of some ready means for mastering those instruments of calculation which enter so closely into the conception and execution of the works of art in every country. The evil arising from the great confusion in the weights, measures, and coins in use in all states had long been experienced. Men of science of all countries most liberally deposit fruitful seeds of thought and discovery in their memoirs and transactions that they may become the heritage of mankind, yet though reduced to the certainty of numbers they often fail to become fully available from the discordant method pursued in their exposition. With the great facility of communication by land and sea, with thought flashing through the air and penetrating the very depths of the ocean, and with a liberal commercial policy largely promoting the interchange of produce and manufacture between different countries, we must regret that we have a want of agreement in the instruments of exchange, which must arrest progress and in many cases absolutely prevent the increase of trade. Happily the Society of Arts, whilst still fresh in the recollection of the glorious exhibition of 1851, seized the moment when public attention was given in this country to the decimalisation of the coinage for generalising a question which had hitherto been apprehended solely from a national aspect, and from that moment the attainment of universal uniformity in such instruments of exchange ceased to be theoretical and utopian, and received the countenance of thoughtful and wise men of all countries. In their memorial to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury in the year 1853 the Society of Arts, after urging the importance of a system of decimal coins, weights, and measures in advancing the arts, manufactures, and commerce of the country, pointed out how the growing intelligence and education of every people were sweeping away those feelings of personal antipathy which formerly existed, and how much the beneficent result would be increased by facilitating international relations; and that a uniformity in weights, measures, and coins would be of the utmost importance to commerce, and in weights and measures specially would greatly facilitate scientific research. They submitted, as a matter of grave consideration, whether, in introducing a change to a decimal system of coins, weights, and measures, some arrangements might not be made with neighbouring nations for the adoption of a uniform system throughout the world; that sooner or later such a system would be loudly called for by different nations, and the inconvenience of a second change might be obviated by a little judicious forethought; that it was worthy of the country which had inaugurated unrestricted commerce and unrestricted navigation, and which exerted by its exhibitions and its policy the most unrestricted competition, to make the first advances towards such a glorious result; and that there was nothing incapable of realisation in the idea, since several nations on the continent of Europe have already a common coinage, and the metric system of weights and measures is still more widely adopted. The decimalisation of the coinage had for a considerable time been the subject of discussion. The commissioners for the restoration of the standards of weights and measures in 1840 summed up the advantages of it as follows: In our opinion the scale of binary subdivision is well adapted to the small retail transactions which seldom become the subject of written accounts, and which constitute a large part of the daily transactions in every country. The decimal scale, however, appears to us to be by far the most convenient for all transactions which become the subject of written accounts, and for all transactions of whatever kind in which great numbers of weights and measures are combined by addition or multiplication." In 1847, Sir John Bowring moved for an address to the Crown in favour of the issue of silver pieces of the value respectively of onetenth and one-hundredth part of a pound as a step to the complete introduction of the decimal system. And consequently the florin or two-shillings piece was soon after put into circulation. In 1853, on the motion of Mr. William Brown, a committee of the House of Commons was appointed to take into consideration the practicability and advantages or otherwise that would arise from adopting the decimal system of coinage. And the committee reported that there was a concurrent testimony to the effect that the adoption of a decimal system would lead to greater accuracy, that it would simplify accounts, would diminish the labour of calculations to the extent of one-half and in some cases four-fifths; and by facilitating the comparison between the coinage of this country and other countries that have adopted the decimal system would tend to the convenience of all those who are engaged in exchange operations of travellers and others. The committee then recommended the retention of the pound as the unit, but the division of the same into ten florins, ten cents, and ten mils. The country, however, was not prepared for this measure and no step was taken on the subject till 1855, when Mr. William Brown moved resolutions expressing satisfaction at the issue of the florin and recommending the issue of silver coins to represent the value of onehundredth part of a pound, and copper coins to represent the one-thousandth part of a pound, to be called cents and mils respectively. But the resolution in favour of the florin was only carried by a majority of 135 to 56, and that which advocated further progress in that direction had to be withdrawn, The next step was the appointment of a royal commission, three in number, to consider how far it might be practicable and advisable to introduce the principle of decimal divisions into the coinage of the United Kingdom, but no good result came from the commission. The commissioners disagreed: one (Lord Monteagle) withdrew from it, and the conclusions of Lord Overstone and Mr. Hubbard were unfavourable to any further advance. In 1855 an International Association was established for the promotion of one uniform decimal system of weights, measures, and coins in all countries. And this association, after studying the comparative claims of the different systems of weights and measures in use throughout the world, resolved in favour of the metric on account of its scientific and international character. In 1862 a committee of the House of Commons was appointed on the motion of the late Mr. William Ewart to consider the practicability of adopting a single and uniform system of weights and measures, with a view not only to the benefit of our international trade, but to facilitate our trade and intercourse with foreign countries. With Richard Cobden among its members, animated by the general influence of the international exhibition, and aided by witnesses of the highest eminence from different countries, an international character was imparted to the whole of its proceedings, which could not fail to influence the final report. Accordingly the committee recommended that the use of the metric system should be rendered legal in the United Kingdom, that the government should sanction its use in the levying of customs duties and in public contract, and that the gram should be used as a weight for foreign letters and books at the post office. And in 1864 an Act was passed providing that, notwithstanding anything contained in any Act of Parliament to the contrary, no contract or dealing should be deemed to be invalid or open to objection on the ground that the weights or measures expressed or referred to in such contract or dealing are weights or measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal subdivisions of legal weights and measures, whether metric or otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing. A permissive measure is doubtless insufficient, but it was expected that this measure would lead sooner or later to the entire substitution of the metric system for the present practice. Some steps have also been made regarding international coinage. On December 23, 1865, a monetary treaty was concluded between France, Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland, whereby their respective coinage, which was already in the main uniform, was rendered legal in all the states so agreeing. And in 1867, on the occasion of the Universal Exhibition in Paris, two congresses were held for the extension of the principles of such a convention, one of a voluntary character at the Palais de l'Industrie, and the other of an official character at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, both of which substantially agreed as follows: 1. That the adoption of a uniform system of coinage would offer advantages from the point of view of convenience and economy in the settlement of international exchanges, which cannot fail to commend it to every enlightened Government. 2. But that inasmuch as such measure cannot be realised unless many countries consent to sacrifice their ancient and customary instruments of commerce, and it is necessary, in their interest, that such change may be effected gradually, and in a continuous manner; and that, in the first instance, the change be as simple as possible, and free from all incidental complications, it would be well to aim at first to the following points, viz: (a.) The coining by all Governinents of a similar gold unit. (b.) The adoption by all of the same fineness, viz., 1 fine, alloy. (c.) The issue of one piece at least of gold coin in each (d.) The adoption of the French system as a basis. such unit. (f.) The adoption of coins so coined as legal currency in all the contracting states. 27 & 28 Vict. c. 117. (g.) The adoption of a single standard, gold. (h.) The adoption of common measures of control. Since the holding of these conferences considerable progress has been made towards uniformity. As regards weights and measures : In Germany, by the law of June 10, 1868, the use of metric weights and measures was rendered permissive from 1870, and compulsory from January 1, 1872. In Austria, by the law of July 23, 1871, the use of metric weights and measures was rendered permissive from 1873, and compulsory from 1876. In Sweden a bill was introduced for the adoption of metric weights and measures, but it was rejected on the ground that it was inconvenient so long as England, Denmark, and Russia do not adopt the same. In the United Kingdom, though no real progress has been made since the passing of the Act of 1864, which legalised contracts made in terms of the same, the Act of 1878 legalised the use of metric weights and measures for scientific purposes, and authorised the Board of Trade to verify by metric weights and measures. In Canada the use of metric weights and measures was made permissive in 1871. In British India metric weights and measures were introduced in 1870, but the Act was not confirmed by the Home Government. In the United States of America the use of metric weights and measures was rendered permissive in 1876. As regards coinage, less has been done than as regards weights and measures. In the United Kingdom, soon after the Conference alluded to, the British Government issued a Royal Commission to consider and report upon the proceedings of the International Monetary Conferences, and upon the recommendations of the same; but the report of the Royal Commissioners was unfavourable to the special scheme 1. Because France and the other parties to the Monetary Convention of 1865 still maintained a double standard. 2. Because the proposed plan, whilst providing for the identity of certain coins issued in uniformity with the proposed monetary system, no uniformity would be introduced in the subordinate coins; for example, the 25f. and the pound would be equal, but the shilling and the franc, the cent and the mill of different countries would have nothing in common. 3. Because the advantage of this mutual co-ordination of systems and identity of certain coins was not sufficient to justify England changing the pound sterling, which has remained at the same identical weight of 113.001 grains pure gold since 1714. The proposal to charge a seignorage in England equal to the |