PAUSANIAS

their aged poor. In Germany preventive measures are compulsory insurance of workmen against sickness and old age and against accidents by employers. In the U. S. the localities are everywhere expected to support their own poor by taxation; but the prevalence of the county system in many states, the township in others, and of a combination of township, county, and state systems in some localities, makes it difficult to say what usages prevail in the Republic as a whole. The formation in many cities since 1870 of charity organization societies has promoted inquiries into the state of the poor, guarding against much imposture, and relieving those truly in need. In Great Britain $82,538,450 were expended, 1905, by unions and parishes for the poor; number relieved, 932,267. In France the bureau de bienfaisance expended, 1904, 46,810,251 fr., and assisted 1,381,387 persons. In the U. S., January 1, 1905, the number of paupers in almshouses was 85,290.

Pausanias (pâ-sa'ni-us), d. 468 B.C.; Spartan general; son of Cleombrotus and regent of Sparta during the minority of his cousin Plistarchus, son of Leonidas; commanded the Greeks at Platæa 479 B.C., and achieved several brilliant victories during the following years; but, elated by these successes, and led astray by an exorbitant ambition and vanity, he entered into treasonous negotiations with the Persians. The Athenians denounced him and the Spartans suspected him. Twice he was recalled from the army and arraigned before the ephors, but no proofs could be presented, and he was acquitted. At last a letter from him to Xerxes was delivered to the ephors by the slave intrusted to carry it to the Persian camp, and when he learned that his treason was discovered he took refuge in the Temple

of Athene Chalciœcus, where he was allowed to die of hunger.

re

or

Pave'ment, covering of wood, stone, brick, or asphalt, laid firmly on a street to give a smooth surface for travel. A street pavement should be durable, readily cleaned and paired, give a secure foothold, not become slippery from use, and be as noiseless as possible. It should also be of such construction that the original cost plus the maintenance may be a minimum. The most common foundation is sand or gravel, laid in a thickness of from 3 to 6 in. Cobblestones set firmly in sand gravel, rubblestones set on edge in contact, and rubblestones set on edge but not in contact with the voids filled with concrete, are also used. The best wooden pavement is composed of rectangular blocks, 3 to 4 in. in width, 6 to 14 in. in length, and 6 in. deep, which are laid in courses across the street with an open joint three quarters of an inch wide between the courses. This is also laid on a foundation of sand covered with boards, and the joints filled with coal tar and gravel. The wooden blocks are creosoted to prevent decay. The best stone pavements are of rectangular blocks set in contact in rows running across the street, and resting on a foundation of concrete. The Belgian pavement is formed of nearly cubical

PAWN

blocks, the edge of the cube being from 5 to 7 in. long; trap rock is generally employed on account of its toughness. The pavement on Broadway, New York City, is of granite blocks from 4 to 5 in. wide, 10 to 15 in. long, and 8 to 10 in. in vertical depth. The blocks are set in close contact on the foundation, over which a layer of sand is laid, and are then rammed with heavy wooden rammers. The joints are filled with sand, or sometimes with asphalt. Brick used for pavement is hard burned, usually without being vitrified, and should be of uniform hardness and low porosity. The bituminous limestone or asphalt rock of Switzerland, when heated, crumbles to powder, which, when spread on a foundation in a sheet 2 or 3 in. thick and compacted by ramming, makes an excellent road covering. The bitumen from Trinidad mixed with sand makes a compound resembling that derived from natural asphalt rock. It is also used in rectangular blocks or bricks, made under pressure. Such pavements are durable, the wear compacting the material instead of grinding it away. For heavy traffic nothing but stone blocks will prove satisfactory, while for lighter traffic brick or asphalt may be preferred. Stone is the most durable and wood the least, while asphalt and brick lie between the two. Wood is the cheapest in first cost, brick next, followed by asphalt, while stone is the dearest. Regarding maintenance and repairs, probably asphalt stands first, stone second, and wood last. In the important matter of cleanliness and hygienic considerations asphalt stands first, brick second, and stone third, while is liable to many grave objections. See ROADS.

Pavia (pä-vē'ä), ancient, Ticinum, city of Italy; on the Ticino; 21 m. S. of Milan, with which it is connected by a canal; formerly called the "City of the Hundred Towers." The churches of Pavia are of great historic and architectural interest; among them are San Michele Maggiore, of the sixth or seventh century, perhaps the first specimen of Lombard architecture existing, and the Cathedral of San Stefano (founded 1488), containing the monBoethius. The Univ. of Pavia is said to have ument to St. Augustine and the remains of been founded by Charlemagne. The Museo Malespina contains some good pictures and a fine collection of engravings. Near Pavia is the picturesque old church Beato Lanfranco; but the great attraction of the neighborhood is the magnificent Certosa di Pavia. Pavia is of very ancient, probably Ligurian, origin, was important under the Romans, and had a Christian church, 326. In 573 it became the Lombard capital, and for two hundred years was a rich and great city. In 1524 Francis I of France suffered a terrible defeat under its walls and was taken prisoner by the troops of Charles V. Bonaparte having taken Pavia (1796), at the prayers of the citizens limited his soldiers to a sack of three hours, so that the town was not totally destroyed. By the Peace of 1814 it returned to Austria, and after the battle of Solferino became a part of the Kingdom of Italy. Pop. (1901) 35,447.

Pawn. See BETEL.

PAWNBROKER

Pawn'broker, one who lends money, at interest, on the security of goods deposited with him, having power to sell the goods if the principal and interest be not repaid within a specified time. Among the first who made a business of lending money on pledges were probably Jews and the Cahorsins or Caursins. The latter are supposed to have been natives of Cahors, in France. In the course of the thirteenth century Italian merchants from Lombardy established themselves in England and France, and afterwards in other countries of Europe. They were bankers and money lenders as well as merchants, and on account of the precariousness of credit took pledges in security. Lombard Street in London and the Rue des Lombards in Paris became financial centers, and the name Lombard the synonym of money lender and usurer. In the fifteenth century efforts were made to deliver the needy from their extortions by the establishment of monts de piété and, 1530, the Lombards were expelled from England, and in the next century from France. The system of pawnbroking as it exists in the U. S. is borrowed directly from that of England, and the subject is regulated by statutes or legal ordinances, the general effect of which is to restrict the interest that may be charged, and in other ways provide for the protection of the borrower, as by restricting the hours of business, requiring tickets to be given for each pledge, etc. The modern pawnbrokers' sign, the three golden balls, is supposed to be derived from the arms of the corporation of Lombards, or from the armorial bearings of the Medici family, who were among the wealthiest of the Lombard merchants.

Pawnees (pâ-nez'), tribe of N. American Indians, long resident on the Platte and its tributaries in Nebraska, with occasional sojourns on the Kansas; were divided into four bands; hostile to the Spaniards before and after the cession of Louisiana to the U. S., but always friendly to Americans; number reduced by wars with Sioux and other tribes; remnant settled on reservation in Indian Territory, 1876; numbered about 700, 1900.

Pawtuck'et, city in Providence Co., R. I.; on Blackstone and Pawtucket rivers; 4 m. N. of Providence; birthplace of the cotton-manufacturing industry in the U. S., initiated, 1790, by Samuel Slater. The Blackstone here has a fall of about 50 ft., furnishing abundant power for manufacturing, and is spanned by several bridges. The city has several public parks; system of waterworks introduced, 1878, at cost of $1,333,000 and enlarged at a cost of $500,000; public library; public-school property valued at over $850,000; manufacturing plants, with capital (1905) $27,178,438 and products $25,846,899, chiefly cotton, woolen, hosiery, and knit goods, foundry and machineshop products, and electrical supplies. The city was settled about 1655; included in Bristol Co., Mass., till 1861; incorporated as city, 1885. Pop. (1906) est. at 44,211.

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PEA

rium, bearing the image of Christ crucified, or of the Lamb, which was kissed first by the bishop, then by the inferior clergy, and finally by the people. The ceremony originated in the custom prevalent in the early Church of greeting one another with a holy kiss." In Roman Catholic churches at the present day a relic of this usage still exists, called giving the pax. Just before the communion at solemn high mass the officiating clergyman extends his hands to the deacon, saying, Pax tecum ("Peace be with you"), to which the deacon answers, Et cum spiritu tuo ("And with thy spirit"). The deacon gives the pax in turn to the subdeacon, and so on, the people having no part in it.

Payn, James, 1830-98; English novelist; b. Cheltenham; 1858 became editor of Chambers's Journal, 1882 of The Cornhill Magazine; published books, chiefly novels, exceed 100 in number, and include "Lights and Shadows of London Life," "Won, Not Wooed," "What He Cost Her," Under One Roof," and 66 The Eavesdropper."

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Paysandú (pi-sän-do'), capital of department of same name in Uruguay; on the Uruguay; 214 m. NW. of Mon

tevideo; center of a rich grazing region; has a large trade, by river, in cattle and hides.

War of 1864-65 beDuring the tween Brazil and Uruguay, Paysandú was taken by the Brazilians, January 2, 1865, after an engagement of fiftytwo hours.

Pea, plant of the family Leguminosa, much prized in temperate countries for its seeds; known to botanists as Pisum sativum; native to Asia. The field pea, P. arvense, is much in the N. grown parts of the U. S. and in Canada as a The forage plant. garden peas fall into two general categories-the common or shelling sorts and

The

PEABODY

the U. S., the edible product being the seeds alone, which are shelled from the pod. The edible-potted peas are those which possess a soft pod, which does not burst open when the seeds are ripe. The pod, with the inclosed seeds, is eaten in the green state, much as "string" beans are used. The sweet pea is prized for its many-colored and sweet-scented blossoms.

Pea'body, George, 1795-1869; American philanthropist; b. S. Danvers (now Peabody), Mass.; merchant in Georgetown, D. C., and Baltimore, Md.; settled in London, England, 1837; established banking house there, 1843; accumulated large fortune; began public benefactions, 1852. In that year he fitted out Dr. Kane's Arctic expedition ($10,000) and founded Peabody Institute at his birthplace ($30,000, later increased by $170,000) and a similar institution at N. Danvers ($50,000); 1857, founded Peabody Institute at Baltimore ($300,000, later increased to $1,000,000). In 1862 completed plans for lodging houses for the poor in London (in all costing $2,500,000); 1866, founded an institute of archæology at Harvard ($150,000) and department of physical science at Yale ($150,000); gave to trustees a fund for promoting education in the S. states ($2,100,000, increased, 1896, to $3,500,000), and made gifts to other objects ($200,000); 1868, endowed an art school in Rome, Italy; 1869, the Peabody Museum in Salem, Mass. ($150,000), and made other gifts ($165,000). He died in London, and after funeral honors in Westminster Abbey his remains were sent to the U. S. on a British warship.

Peace, in international law, a suspension of war and a return to a state of intercourse such as existed before war, and to amnesty, or the oblivion, the waiving, of all future claims on account of those particular acts_of injury for which a war was initiated. For the existence of peace a treaty is necessary, unless, indeed, complete conquest and absorption of an entire country has taken place, when there would be no one to negotiate with. Such a treaty, if there be a number of belligerents, may be made by all the parties on one side with all on the other; or each on one side may make a treaty with every other. If any question of ownership is left unsettled by the treaty of peace, property of every kind remains legally in the hands of that state which at the close of hostilities actually was master of it. The effects of a treaty of peace, in particular the cessation of all war operations, begin at once upon its signature, even if ratification still remains necessary, unless the contrary is specified.

Peace Con'ference. See HAGUE TRIBUNAL; INTERNATIONAL PEACE CONGRESS.

Peace River, river of Canada, which rises in the Coast Range Mountains N. of British Columbia, and flows NE. through the Rocky Mountains to near Athabasca Lake, more than 600 m., where it turns N., and under name of Slave River enters Great Slave Lake; navigable for most of its extent.

PEACOCK

The

Peach, fruit tree of the rose family, widely cultivated in all countries where the climate is not too severe. Its botanical name was formerly Persica vulgaris, but from its close affinity with the almond it was later called Amygdalus persica; now most botanists agree in referring it to the genus Prunus, which includes the plum, and call it P. persica. The tree is of medium size, with a spreading head rarely reaching 30 ft., and usually not more than 15 or 20 ft. high. It is commonly regarded as a short-lived tree, but in a genial soil and climate it attains a good age. peach stone is not the seed proper, but a portion of the pericarp or seed vessel; the stones' of the different varieties differ much in their relative length and breadth, and some are terminated by a long, sharp point. The seed proper, or meat, as it is popularly called, has a very strong flavor of the bitter almond, and, like that, is accompanied by prussic acid; the same flavor is perceptible in the leaves. fruit, the peach is everywhere held in high esteem, but is nowhere so largely cultivated as in the U. S., where the canning of peaches has become an immense industry. A type of peach has arisen with a perfectly smooth, plumlike skin, known as the nectarine; the ordinary peach has a fuzzy skin. The peaches proper, exclusive of the nectarines, fall into two general classes-the clingstones and the freestones, terms referring to the manner in which the flesh joins the pit. These classes grade into each other.

As a

Peach Curl, fungous disease of peach leaves and twigs, in which they become swollen, curled, and deformed; caused by a minute parasitic fungus, Exoascus deformans, which penetrates the tissues of the leaf and finally produces spore sacs on the surface. The early

removal and destruction of all the diseased leaves and shoots, and spraying the trees in early spring with a thirty or forty per cent solution of iron sulphate are recommended.

Peach Yel'lows, contagious disease of peach trees characterized by yellowish-green foliage, dwarf shoots, and prematurely ripened, often reddish-stained fruits. A year or two after the first attack the trees die outright, or languish for several years. No cure is known; all that

can be done is to remove and burn the affected trees.

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Pea'cock, Thomas Love, 1785-1866; English author; b. Weymouth; employed in the East India Company's office, London, 1818-56; works include Headlong Hall," Nightmare Abbey," "Gryll Grange," and poems, "Palmyra," "The Genius of the Thames," and "Rhododaphne."

Peacock, any bird of the genus Pavo and family Phasianida. The several species are remarkable for the long and showy tail coverts of the male. Three species are recognized: (1) The common peacock (Pavo cristatus); (2) the black-shouldered peacock (P. nigripennis); and (3) the Jason peacock (P. muticus). The common peacock is a native of S. and SE. Asia, but is now naturalized in

PEACOCK PHEASANT

many parts of the world. Its flesh was formerly used for food; but, except when young,

PEARL

as a substitute for ebony; also used by engravers for coarse work; fruit usually sugary and melting, with concretions near the core of indurated cells, which are exceedingly hard. The pear is a native of the temperate portions of Europe and the Caucasus, and was cultivated in very early times. The tree is longlived, several specimens in England having

PEACOCK,

it is scarcely palatable. The white peacock is an albino of the ordinary species.

Peacock Pheas'ant, any pheasant of the genus Polyplectron; so called from the fact that the plumage, and especially the tail feathers, of the males are adorned with large eyelike spots, suggesting those of the peacock.

Peale, Charles Willson, 1741-1827; American painter; b. Chestertown, Md.; was saddler, silversmith, watchmaker, and carver; studied under West in London; settled in Philadelphia, and applied himself to portraiture. His works include several portraits of Washington and a series forming the nucleus of a national gallery; founded the first American museum. He was first American manufacturer of enamel

teeth.

Peale, Rembrandt, 1778-1860; American painter; b. Bucks Co., Pa.; son of the preceding; studied under his father and West in London; spent several years in Paris; settled in Philadelphia, 1809; painted portraits, "The Roman Daughter" and "The Court of Death," the latter 24 X 13 ft., and widely exhibited, and published a biography of his father, "Portfolio of an Artist," "Notes on Italy," and "Graphics."

Pea'nut. See GOOBER.

Pear, fruit of the rose family (Pyrus communis); closely related to the apple. The habit of the tree is often pyramidal, with ascending branches; wood very hard and close, and when dyed black is used by cabinetmakers

PEAR BLOSSOMS.

been known to be about four hundred years old, and the one planted by Peter Stuyvesant in New York City was at the time of its destruction (1867) more than two hundred years old. Of all the thousands of varieties of pears, the number grown for profit is very small, rarely more than a dozen, and there are a few kinds, especially the Bartlett, which are successful and popular everywhere. The Seckel, though small, is universally popular, and no native or foreign variety yet known surpasses or even equals it in quality. Considerable quantities of pears are canned; the drying of the fruit is more common abroad than in the U. S.

Pearce, Charles Sprague, 1851- ; American figure and portrait painter; b. Boston, Mass.; pupil of Bonnat in Paris; member Society of American Artists, 1886; honorable mention, Paris Salon, 1881; third-class medal,

Paris Salon, 1883; Temple gold medal, Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia, 1885; medal of honor, Ghent Exhibition, 1886; second-class medal, Munich Exhibition, 1888; gold Staats medal, Vienna, 1898; member of international jury of awards, Paris Exposition, 1889; grand diploma, Berlin Exhibition, 1891. Studio, Auvers-sur-Oisé, France.

Pea Ridge, range of hills in Benton Co., Ark., noted for the battle fought there, March 6-8, 1862, between the Union forces under Gen. Curtis and the Confederates under Gen. Van Dorn, resulting in the defeat of the latter.

Pearl, secretion of the "mantle" or lining membrane of various kinds of shellfish, consisting, like the shell itself, of carbonate of lime united with animal matter. Pearls are of the same color as the interior of the shell in which they are found-white, black, pink, etc., but generally "pearly," or nacreous, as it is