PARK

eled on the gentleman's country place, and | comprising certain other features, such as roads and open spaces, required for public use. The Egyptians doubtless had parks earlier than the earliest records on their monuments. Their parks were formal, rectangular, little more than promenades full of architectural features, colonnades, and sculptured objects of diverse form and significance. Parks to them meant little more than a cluster of gardens. In the mountainous regions of Assyria glimpses of the modern idea of a park began to appear. Idealized conceptions of the mountain idea have been ascribed to the "hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar," and the paradises of the Assyrian Semiramis and the later Persians with wild animals and birds, trees and flowers, approached still nearer the park of modern Europe. The Greeks derived much of their science and art from Egypt, and their landscape architecture apparently came in large part from the same source. The Romans developed a great love for parks, and Rome became in the time of the Cæsars one great pleasure ground. Lanciani says that there were at this time eight campi or commons for foot races and thirty parks or gardens belonging to the city. The largest common was the Campus Martius, a vast level space, with buildings, playgrounds, and waterworks on an extraordinary scale, surrounded by miles of sumptuous colonnaded porticoes inclosing beautiful gardens. The Golden House of Nero included miles of gardens in the very heart of Rome. In every direction the architectural masses were broken and enframed by the green of gardens and parks, while the water was used in canals, fountain basins, and cascades to an extent unknown before or since.

In the U. S. park construction has long been a wise feature of municipal governments, and in the majority of large cities there are park systems completed or in process of construction, usually comprising a cluster of parks with connecting boulevards. In the most thickly settled parts of large cities sanitary science has compelled the creation of “ city lungs," and as a result small parks and recreation grounds are already common. City squares are hardly recognized as parks in the usual sense of the term. They must be somewhat more formal in effect on account of the proximity of city buildings, but the principles on which they are constructed should be the

same

as those of the largest parks. The boundaries should be planted with a series of masking trees and shrubs, and as much open lawn secured as the general design will permit. Architectural structures, statues, and fountain basins find an appropriate home in the small squares of the city. Around these structures brilliant beds of cannas, geraniums, and begonias may be arranged in an effective manner. Among the best-known parks of the present day are Hyde Park (with Kensington Gardens), 598 acres; Regent's Park, 472 acres; Victoria Park, 300 acres; Battersea Park, 250 acres, all in London; Princess Street Gardens, Edinburgh; Phoenix Park, nearly 2,000 acres, Dublin; Central Park, 862 acres, Bronx Park, 661 acres, New York; Prospect Park,

PARKERSBURG

The

Parker, Francis Wayland, 1837-1902; American educator; b. Piscataquog, N. H.; served in Union army through Civil War; principal normal school, Dayton, Ohio, 1868-72; superintendent schools, Quincy, Mass., 1875-80; principal Cook Co. (Ill.) Normal School, 188396, Chicago Normal School, 1896-99; president Chicago Institute, 1899, till death; author of "Talks on Teaching," "How to Study Geography,” “Outlines in Geography," "Talks on Pedagogics," "Uncle Robert's Geography," etc.

Parker, Theodore, 1810-60; American theological leader; b. Lexington, Mass.; settled at W. Roxbury as pastor of the Second (Unitarian) Church, 1837; soon arrived at religious views widely differing from those of conservative Unitarians; stated the principles of his transcendental system in lectures delivered at Boston, 1841; published under the title Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion"; followed, 1842, by a series of "Sermons for the Times"; wrote articles in The Dial; published a volume of "Critical and Miscellaneous and a translation of De Wette's Writings

A

"Introduction to the Old Testament." Opposition to his admission to the pulpits of sev

He

eral churches led him to establish an organization at Boston, known as the Twenty-eighth Congregational Society, Boston, 1846. founded and edited for three years the Massachusetts Quarterly; was indicted in the U. S. court, 1854, for resistance to the Fugitive Slave Law in the case of Anthony Burns, the offense being an address at Faneuil Hall, but was never brought to trial.

Par'kersburg, capital of Wood Co., W. Va.; at confluence of the Ohio and the Little Kanawha rivers; 96 m. S. by W. of Wheeling; in a rich oil and natural-gas region; contains seminary, Academy of the Visitation, U. S. Govt. building, shops of the Ohio River Railroad, oil refineries, machine shops, iron foundries, boiler shops, lumber mills, furniture factory, and acid works. The Ohio River is here crossed

PARKES

PARLIAMENTARY LAW

Parkes, Sir Henry, 1815-96; Australian statesman; b. Stoneleigh, England; went to Sydney, New S. Wales, 1839; elected to colonial Parliament, 1854; went to England as Commissioner of Emigration, 1861; on return, reëlected to Parliament; Premier, 1872-75, 1877-78, 1878-83, 1887-89, and 1889-91; during last ministry actively promoted colonial confederation, but did not live to see its accomplishment.

late court in the kingdom. Total membership (1908), 613. The House of Commons consists of members representing the county, borough, and university constituencies in the three divisions of the kingdom. No candidate requires any property qualification, and members receive no compensation. In its method of work the Commons is similar to the U. S. House of

Representatives. The Speaker never joins in debate, except on rare occasions when the House is in committee of the whole, and never votes excepting to decide a tie. He has a residence and £5,000 per annum, serves till a dissolution, and on retirement is usually given a pension of £4,000 per annum and a peerage. Total membership (1908), 670.

Parliamentary Law, the law governing the

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SO

WOLD.

Parliament, originally a meeting or assembly for conference or deliberation; afterwards applied in France to the principal judicial courts, and in England to the legislature of the kingdom. The word, or one very like it, was long in use in France, and was first applied there to general assemblies in the time of Louis VII, about the middle of the twelfth century. General councils existed in England under various names from the earliest Saxon times; but the word parliament first occurs in the statute of Westminster, 1272, and the present constitution of Parliament did not exist till early in the fourteenth century. The Imperial Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is composed of the crown and the three estates of the realm-the lords spiritual, the lords temporal, and the commons. It is the prerogative of the crown to convoke, continue, or dissolve it. No Parliament can last longer than seven years, and writs for summoning a new one must issue within three years from the dissolution of the last one. The sessions may be suspended by adjournment or prorogation, and ended by dissolution. In practice, Parliaments assemble annually, and sit during the first half of the year.

The House of Lords is composed of the lords spiritual and temporal, the former consisting of the archbishops of Canterbury and York and twenty-four bishops of the Church of England; the latter of hereditary peers, representative peers of Scotland and Ireland, and lords of appeal in ordinary. Scottish peers elect sixteen representatives after every general election, who sit till Parliament is dissolved; Irish peers elect twenty-eight representatives for life. The House of Lords has both legislative

while in Great Britain it is demanded by those who vote against it. To avoid confusion, every deliberative assembly should adopt some published work as its authority on all points of parliamentary law not covered by its own special rules. It will generally be found best to supplement the adopted authority by some rules adapted to meet the special wants of each separate organization. As a general rule, parliamentary law in the U. S. is based upon the rules and practice of Congress, except where they are evidently not adapted to a bona-fide deliberative assembly, when recourse must be had to the old common parliamentary law and the best practice.

Officers. The necessary officers of a deliberative assembly are a presiding officer or chairman (called president, speaker, moderator, etc.) and a recording officer, usually known as secretary or clerk. It is the duty of the chairman to call the assembly to order; preside over the meetings; state every question coming properly before the assembly previous to recognizing a member to speak or make another motion; put to vote the questions before the assembly; announce the business before the assembly; enforce the rules; preserve order and decorum; and decide all questions of order and practice, subject to an appeal by any two members. The chairman should rarely participate in the debate. He can vote whenever his vote would affect the result and whenever the vote is by ballot. It is the duty of the secretary to record the proceedings, including every resolution adopted and the names of members of committees appointed. The official records and other documents of the assembly are in the custody of the secretary, but they are open to inspection by members, and the chairman may direct certain ones to be turned over to a com

PARLIAMENTARY LAW

mittee that needs them. The record should be signed by the secretary, or, in his absence, by the secretary pro tem.

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The Resolution of Motion.-Business is usually brought before the assembly in the form of a resolution offered by a member. The question on its adoption is called the main or principal question. A resolution should always begin with the words "Resolved, That." When it is desired to give a reason for the resolution, this reason should be placed in a paragraph preceding the resolution, called the preamble, which should begin with "Whereas and end with "therefore" or therefore, be it." The preamble, as well as the resolution proper, is included in the term resolution. In order to offer a resolution it is necessary for the member to rise in his place and address the presiding officer by his proper title. The chairman then recognizes him by announcing his name or by bowing to him; in legislative bodies a member is recognized or referred to as the member from such and such a district. No member is entitled to make a motion or speak until recognized. It is customary to require important motions to be seconded in order to prevent wasting of time on questions favored by only one member. It is not necessary to obtain the floor for this, but any member in his seat can say, "I second the motion." In Congress such seconds are not required. The chair now clearly states the question before the assembly, after which he recognizes the mover of the motion as having the floor, or the member who first rises and addresses the chair.

Precedence.-During the consideration of a question it is not in order to introduce any other principal question, but it is allowable to make other motions that will aid in disposing of the main question, or that arise incidentally, or that relate to the enforcement of the rules, or to the privileges of the assembly, or to closing the meeting, or to the time of the next meeting. The most common of these have the following order of precedence, any one being in order (except to amend) when one of lower rank is pending, and everyone being out of order when one of higher rank is pending: To fix the time to which to adjourn, adjourn, orders of the day, lay on the table, previous question, postpone to a certain time, commit or refer, amend, and postpone indefinitely. Questions incidental to those before the assembly take precedence and must be decided first.

Debate. Every motion is debatable, except such as from their nature cannot be debated without injury to the business before the assembly. Debate cannot be allowed on highly privileged motions, as to adjourn, or they could be used to prevent the assembly from transacting any business. A motion to close debate must necessarily be undebatable, or its very object could be defeated. The following motions cannot be debated: Fix the time to which to adjourn; adjourn; for the orders of the day and questions relating to priority of business; appeal when previous question is pending or when relating to indecorum or to transgression of rules of

PARLIAMENTARY LAW

speaking or to priority of business; objection to consideration of question; lay on the table or take from the table; previous question, and all motions extending, limiting, or closing debate or allowing one to continue speaking after being guilty of indecorum in debate; reconsider an undebatable question; question relating to suspending the rules, withdrawing a motion, or reading papers. Debate must be confined to the one question before the assembly at the time, other questions being discussed only so far as they have a bearing on the question immediately before the assembly, except that when the decision of the pending question finally disposes of the main question, then the latter is open to debate also. Amendments.-The assembly can modify the main question by adopting amendments, or it may be referred to a committee who can report amendments for adoption by the assembly. An amendment may be by adding or inserting, by striking out, by striking out and inserting, by substituting, or by dividing the question. An amendment may itself be amended, but not so as to alter its form, nor can any parliamentary motion be amended so as to become a motion of another form. An amendment of an amendment cannot be amended. While an amendment is pending it is not in order to make another motion to amend the resolution, but after one amendment is disposed of another can be offered.

Postponing and Suppressing Questions.-Action upon a question may be deferred by postponing it to a certain time; or it should be laid on the table; or it should be made a special order for a certain time, which motion requires a two thirds vote for its adoption. The assembly may suppress the question as follows: (a) When first introduced, before debate or action thereon, any member may, even while the mover has the floor, object to the introduction of the question, and if the objector is sustained by a two thirds vote the question is dismissed for that session, thus enabling the assembly to avoid having its time taken up with irrelevant or profitless questions. (b) After the question has been debated, the proper way to suppress the question is to vote it down or postpone it indefinitely, except that if it fails the original question is not adopted, as it would have been had the vote been taken on adopting the main question. Since to postpone indefinitely opens the main question to debate, when this motion is made with a view of suppressing the question immediately, it is necessary also to demand the previous question, just as it is when it is desired to bring the assembly to an immediate vote on the main question. (c) While a two thirds vote is required to suppress the question without free debate, yet in most cases it can be practically accomplished by a majority vote on the motion to lay the question on the table. In the U. S. Congress, where the calendar is so full and party lines strictly drawn, the most common method of killing a question is to lay it on the table. In voluntary organizations, where mutual good feeling and cooperation are desired, questions should not be suppressed without debate unless by a two thirds vote,

PARMA, DUKES OF

and the motion to lay on the table should be | confined to its strict parliamentary use of laying aside a question to be taken up at a more convenient time. Where it is desired to kill simply an amendment, it will not do merely to lay it on the table, as this carries with it the resolution also.

Reconsideration. To protect the assembly from having questions reintroduced repeatedly at the same session, and yet to give reasonable freedom for correcting errors due to hasty action, parliamentary law in the U. S. provides that no principal question (resolution or report) or amendment that has been once acted upon shall be again taken up at that session except by a motion to reconsider or rescind; but the motion to adjourn can be renewed if there has been progress in debate or any business transacted.

Adoption of Motions.-A majority of the votes cast when a quorum is present is all that is necessary, in the absence of a special rule to the contrary. A quorum, or the number that must be present in order that business may be transacted, is a majority of all the members of the organization where there is no number specified by rule, which should always be done. The following motions come under the above exception and require a two thirds vote: To amend or suspend the rules; to make a special order or take up a question out of its proper order; to object to the consideration of a question; to close or limit or extend the limits of debate; and the previous question. Committees. If an assemblage has much business to transact, its work can be expedited by having questions first considered by committees, which may be standing (appointed for a term, as a year or session), or select (one for a special purpose), or committee of the whole (ie., the whole assembly). If a committee chairman has not been appointed by the assembly, the first member named, and in his absence the next, should act as chairman, unless the committee elect some one else. If the committee is one for action, it should be small and contain only friends of the object for which it was appointed; if for deliberation or investigation, it should be larger and all sides should be fairly represented. In committee the chairman usually takes the most active part; members do not rise to speak, motions are not seconded, and in small committees they are not always made, but they should be voted upon; the chairman usually votes.

Par'ma, Dukes of. See FARNESE.

Parma, province of Italy; bounded N. by Lombardy, E. by Modena, S. and W. by Tuscany; between the Po and the Apennines; area, 1,250 sq. m.; pop. (1908) est. at 297,970; capital, Parma; chief rivers, Po, Taro, Euza; products, wine, oil, fruits, rice, timber, marble, alabaster, copper, and salt; manufactures, silk; Parmesan cheese largely exported. Under the Romans the territory formed part of Cisalpine Gaul. Charlemagne ceded it to the pope. It became independent during the wars between the Holy See and the German emperors, and was ruled by local dynasties till 1346, when it fell into the hands of the Visconti of

Milan.

PARMENIDES

Pope Julius II obtained it, 1511, and Paul III gave it, 1545, to his son Pietro Luigi Farnese, whose successors held the duchies of Parma and Piacenza till 1731, when Elizabeth Farnese, wife of Philip V of Spain, obtained them for her son Don Carlos; but when he became King of the Two Sicilies they were annexed to Austria (1735), and, 1748, the duchies along with Guastalla, were assigned to Don Philip, brother of Don Carlos. Philip was succeeded, 1765, by his son Ferdinand, on whose death, 1802, they were annexed to France. In 1814 the three duchies were bestowed on the ex-Empress of France, Maria Louisa. Duke Charles of Lucca succeeded her in Parma and Piacenza, 1847, and resigned, 1849, in favor of his son Charles III. The latter was assassinated, 1854, and his son Robert succeeded him. He was deposed, 1859, and, 1860, Parma and Piacenza were annexed to the dominions of Victor Emmanuel as separate provinces. PARMA, the capital of province, is on the Parma River, 79 m. SE. of Milan; is circular in form, surrounded by ramparts and bastions, and has a citadel, built 1591. The Via Emilia crosses it from E. to W. The streets are broad and in good condition, squares large, and there is a public promenade near the citadel, on the S. side of the town, and a public park in the NW. angle. Among the public buildings is the Cathedral of the Assumption (Roman Byzantine, begun 1060), which contains, among other superior works of art, many frescoes by Correggio, much restored; the baptistery (begun 1196), a fine specimen of Lombard architecture; the Church of S. Giovanni Evangelista, with frescoes by Correggio; the Madonna della Steccata, church of the Renaissance, containing sepulchral monuments of the Farnese and Bourbon rulers of Parma and a celebrated picture by Mazzuoli. The Municipal Museum, the Academy of Fine Arts, the School of Design, and the Farnese Theater are in the great building known as the Pilotta, intended to form a part of a colossal ducal palace never completed. There is also a university, founded 1521, and a royal public library. Pop. (1907) 49,340.

Parma, Duchy of. See PARMA (province).

a

Parmen'ides, son of Pyrrhes; the most notable of the philosophers of the Eleatic School; b. at Elea, Lucania, about the year 519 B.C. He took an active part in the government of his native city and drew up a code of laws, to which the Eleans annually swore to conform. He disseminated his philosophy both by teaching and writing. According to Plato, he was personally acquainted with Socrates.

The only work of Parmenides known to the ancients was that bearing the title "On Nature," written, according to the custom of the time, in dactylic hexameters. It was divided into three parts: (1) An introduction, describing in highly figurative language the manner in which the philosopher reached the citadel of truth; (2) a treatise "On Truth"; and (3) a treatise "On Opinion."

Parmenides was, with the exception perhaps of Heraclitus, the greatest of the pre-Socratic thinkers. The kernel of his thought is the no

PARMENIO

tion of pure Being, which he identifies with pure Thinking, and labors to define by every means afforded by the undeveloped philosophic diction of his day. Pure Being, the common basis of finite existence and finite Thought, alone is. Nonbeing and all the array of finite thoughts and things which its assumption entails are delusions, unavoidable perhaps for the uncultured mind, but transparent enough to the true thinker.

Parme'nio, abt. 400-330 B.C.; Macedonian general; was favorite of Philip; second in command when Alexander invaded Asia; complet ed subjugation of Media while the king was pursuing Darius in Parthia and Hyrcania; was assassinated.

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Parmigiano (pär-mē-jäʼnō), Il ("The Parmesan"), real name FRANCESCO MAZZUOLI, or MAZZOLA, 1503-40; Italian painter; b. Parma; at age of fourteen painted a remarkable "Baptism of Christ "; became a pupil of Correggio; early went to Rome, where among other works he executed a Circumcision of Christ" for the pope; after the sacking of Rome, 1527, he worked in Bologna; there produced some of his best works, also many wood engravings and designs for goldsmiths. 1531 he returned to Parma, where he executed many fine works. He abandoned painting for alchemy, and being condemned to prison on various charges fled to Cassalmaggiore, where, after painting a Madonna" for St. Stephen's and a Roman Lucretia," he was repossessed by the mania for alchemy, and after dissipating his fortune, died of melancholia.

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In

Parnahyba (pär-nä-ē′bä), river of Brazil, separating states of Piauhy and Maranhão; flowing NE. and entering the Atlantic near lat. 3° 15' S.; length about 850 m. Basin of 135,000 sq. m. embraces all of Piauhy, in which it has many affluents, and 20,000 sq. m. in Maranhão. It has few rapids, and during the annual floods canoes can ascend to head of main river. Much of the commerce of Piauhy is by this route.

Parnas'sus, mountain of Greece; district of Phocis; rising 8,068 ft. above the sea. Its three peaks are covered with snow the greatest part of the year; its sides are covered with beautiful forests and abound in crags and caverns. In ancient times it was consecrated to Apollo and the Muses. Delphi, with its famous oracle and the Castalian fountain, was on its SW. slope. The Corycian cavern, the abode of Pan and the Muses, was on its W. slope, and on its highest top were celebrated the wild orgies of Dionysus.

Parnell, Charles Stewart, 1846-91; Irish statesman; b. Avondale, Wicklow; grandson

on mother's side of Rear Admiral Charles

PAROTID GLAND

Crimes and Land Acts, 1881; arrested and imprisoned six months; organized National League, 1883; led Irish Parliamentary party, 1884-85; supported Gladstone's Home Rule Bill, 1860. He was charged by The Times with complicity in crimes by Irish tenantry, 1887; acquitted by commission on investigation, 1888; obtained £5,000 damages from The Times; involved in a divorce scandal and superseded as party leader by Justin McCarthy, 1890. See HOME RULE; LAND LEAGUE

Parole', in law, a term used generally to designate oral evidence as distinguished from written evidence, but also to designate any contract or agreement, either oral or in writing, which is not under seal. Pleadings formerly when given viva voce, orally, in court were frequently termed the parol.

Paropam'isus, or Paropamisan' Moun'tains, in ancient geography, a name of uncertain signification, sometimes limited to the range which forms the N. boundary of Kabul, sometimes extended to the whole group connecting the Caucasus with the Himalaya, but generally corresponding to the modern Hindu Kush.

Paroquet (păr'ō-kět), popular name for numerous small parrots with rather long, wedgeshaped tails. While the word has no exact scientific meaning, it is used to distinguish

ALEXANDRINE PAROQUET.

those birds with wedge-shaped tails from the parrot, macaw, lory, and cockatoo, which, as a rule, are names applied to larger birds, usually with square tails.

Pa'ros, island of Greece; one of the Cyclades; 5 m. W. of Naxos; area, 80 sq. m.; ble. The Arundel or Oxford marbles, which most famous for its production of Parian margive the Greek chronolo from Cecrops to Alexander, were discovered here, 1627. abt. 7,700.

Pop.