RATTAN

group embraces the largest of birds, all of which are incapable of flight, and progress by running. The species, though comparatively few, represent several well-defined families, viz., Struthionida, embracing the African ostriches; Rheida, including the American ostriches, or nandus; Casuarida, with the cassowaries and emus of the Papuan Archipelago, Australia, etc.; and Apterygidæ, including the kiwis of New Zealand; the order was also well represented in former geologicai epochs, especially in New Zealand, by the gigantic Dinornithida, which seem to have been destitute of true wings.

Rattan', slender stem of various plants of the genus Calamus, many of which are climbers or trailers, others quite short, all having a beautiful head of feathery leaves. C. viminalis, C. rudentum, C. rotang, C. versus, C. scipionum, and C. draco are among the species. The third and the last mentioned yield a part of the dragon's blood of commerce. Some produce good fruits; but the chief use is that of the stalks. From Borneo to Bengal great quantities are gathered for the markets. China mats, sails, and cables are among the articles made from them. In the U. S. they are used in making chairs, baskets, canes, umbrella ribs, etc., and splinters of rattan are used in carriage trimming and other ornamental work. Tropical America has numerous rattanlike palms of the genus Desmoncus. They are locally used like the true rattans. CANE.

In

See

Rattazzi (rät-tät'sē), Urbano, 1808-73; Italian statesman; b. Alessandria; began to practice as an advocate at Casale; elected to the Sardinian Parliament, 1848; opposed the Austrian authority in Italy; member of the cabinet of Gioberti, 1849; in cabinet of Cavour, 1853-58 as Minister of Justice, but resigned on account of opposition to Cavour's policy of alliance with France; formed a cabinet in opposition to Ricasoli, 1862, and again, 1867, but held the place only for a few months. His wife, MARIE STUDOLMINE DE SOLMS, 1830-1902; b. London, England; daughter of the Princess Lætitia Bonaparte; married Rattazzi, 1863, and M. de Rute, 1877; wrote a biography of Rattazzi and other

works.

Rat'tlesnake, snake of the family Crotalida provided with a rattle to the tail. The rattle is composed of articulated horny segments in

ZLOOKINGGRESSIGAIN!

RATTLE AND SECTION OF RATTLE.

varying number-from two or three up to thirty or more. The popular belief that the number of segments indicates the age of the animal is erroneous. The species of the group

The common rattlesnake of the E. states is C. horridus; in the S. states, from N. Carolina to Florida, C. adamanteus is also found. A species of Crotalophorus (C. catenatus) is also found in the W. states, and extends as far E. as W. New York. The venom of the rattlesnake is most to be feared in warm weather.

Rauch (rowch), Christian Daniel, 1777-1857; German sculptor; b. Arolsen; became famous, 1813, by his statue of Queen Louisa, who had enabled him to study in Dresden and Rome; later executed hundreds of works, including the colossal equestrian statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin. He was court sculptor and professor in the Academy of Berlin.

Ravaillac (rä-väl-yäk'), François, abt. 15781610; French regicide; b. near Angoulême; was successively a lawyer's clerk and schoolmaster at Angoulême, and was imprisoned for some offense. His hatred of the Protestants, and of Henry IV as the arch enemy of the Catholic faith, became a monomania. He went to Paris, and, May 14, 1610, stabbed the king to the heart while his carriage was detained in a narrow street. He was tried by the Parliament of Paris, and torn to pieces by horses, with unexampled tortures.

Ra'ven, bird (Corvus corax) which differs from the crow chiefly by its larger size and the lance-shaped feathers of its chin and throat. It is found over the greater part of the N. division of the Old World, as well as N. America,

Raven'na, city in province of same name, Italy; between the Lamone and Ronco; connected with the great towns of the peninsula by rail and with the Adriatic by canal, completed 1747; stands in a marshy plain over 4 m. from the water, though anciently it was bathed by the Adriatic, and has walls 3 m. in circumference. Ravenna is, according to tradition, older than Rome. The Romans subdued it, 187 B.C., and Augustus made it the headquarters of the Roman fleet on the Adriatic, connecting it with the Po by an inland canal. Honorius (404) made Ravenna the capital of the W. empire. Until 679 its archbishop claimed equality with the pope. Taken by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 476, it was captured from him later, after a three years' siege, by the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great, 493. Belisarius took it, 538. Narses, another general of Justinian, made it the capital of the exarchate of Ravenna, and it was governed by the emperors of Constantinople till 752. Then the last exarch was expelled by Atolph, King of the Lombards; himself expelled, 755, by Pepin of France, who bestowed the city on the popes. It became an independent dukedom, 1318; was seized by Venice, 1440. Pope Julius II regained it, 1509. It continued part of the states of the Church, with the exception of intervals during 1797-1815, till incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy, 1860. Pop. (1901) 64,

031.

Rawal Pindi (rä'wäl pin'de), capital of division and district of same name in the Punjab, British India; between the Indus and Jhelum; 160 m. NW. of Lahore; is a fortified military post; has large trade with Afghanistan and Kashmir; was the scene of the surrender of the Sikhs after their defeat at Gujrat, 1849,

RAY

and of a great durbar held by the Viceroy of India in honor of the Amir of Afghanistan, 1885. Pop. (1901) 87,688.

Raw'don-Hast'ings, Francis (Marquis of Hastings), 1754-1826; British military officer and statesman; b. Ireland; entered the army, 1771; served at Bunker Hill, the battles of Long Island and White Plains, and the attacks on forts Washington and Clinton; raised in New York a corps called the Volunteers of Ireland, which he commanded; distinguished himself at Monmouth; as general was prominent at the battle of Camden, S. C.; defeated Gen. Greene at Hobkirk's Hill, 1781; relieved Fort Ninetysix; succeeded his father as Earl of Moira, 1793; made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 1805; Governor General of India, 1813-23; created Marquis of Hastings, 1816; Governor of Malta,

1824-26.

Raw'lins, John Aaron, 1831-69; American army officer; began law practice in Galena, 1855; became a leading Democrat of the Douglas school; on Grant's appointment to the army, 1861, was made assistant adjutant general on his staff; served thereon through the war; became chief of staff and brigadier general, U. S. army, when Grant was made lieutenant general; brevet major general; Secretary of War, 1868-69.

Rawlinson, George, 1815-1902; English historian; b. Chadlington, Oxford; brother of Sir Exeter College, 1840; Hampton lecturer, 1859; Henry Creswicke Rawlinson; became fellow of Camden Prof. of Ancient History at Oxford, 1861; canon of Canterbury Cathedral, 187289; author of "The Five Great Monarchs of the Ancient Eastern World," "A Manual of Ancient History," "The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy; or, The Geography, History, and Antiquities of Parthia"; "The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy; or, The Geography, History, and Antiquities of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire"; "History of Ancient Egypt," Egypt and Babylon," and a "History of Pho

66

nicia."

Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke, 1810-95; English Orientalist and diplomatist; b. Chadlington, Oxford; entered the Bombay army, 1826; political agent to Kandahar and Turkish Arabia, 1840-43; consul general at Bagdad, 1865-68; member of the Council of India, 1858-59; envoy to Persia, 1859-60; president of Royal Geographical Society, 1871-73, 187576, and of the Society of Biblical Archæology after 1873; received a baronetcy, 1891. He translated the celebrated rock inscription of Beristun; edited, with E. Norris and George Smith, five volumes of cuneiform inscriptions; published "England and Russia in the East," etc.

Ray, or Wray, John, 1627-1705; English biologist; b. Black Notley, Essex; took orders in the Church of England, but refused to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity, 1662; traveled on the Continent with Francis Willoughby; became a fellow of the Royal Society, 1667; published in Latin works including "Catalogue of the Plants of England," "New Method of

RAYMOND

Plants,"

READJUSTERS

of

Ray'mond, Henry Jarvis, 1820-69; American journalist; b. Lima, N. Y.; became assistant editor New York Tribune on its establishment, 1841; office editor of New York Courier and Enquirer, 1848; elected to New York Assembly as a Whig, 1849, 1850; issued the first number of the New York Times, September 8, 1851; edited the paper until his death; active in the Baltimore Whig Convention, 1852; elected Lieutenant Governor of New York, 1854. He was prominent in the organization of the Republican Party, 1856; elected member and Speaker of New York Assembly, 1861; president of Union Convention at Syracuse, 1862; chairman of New York delegation in the National Republican Convention, 1864; elected to Congress, 1864; took part in convoking the Philadelphia "Loyalists' Convention," 1866, and wrote its "Address and Declaration of Principles"; author of "The Life and Public Services of Abraham Lincoln."

Raymond, John T. (original name, JOHN O'BRIEN), 1836-87; American actor; b. Buffalo, N. Y.; made his first appearance in Rochester, 1853 as Lopez in "The Honeymoon"; afterwards appeared at Charleston, S. C., as Asa Trenchard in "Our American Cousin," with Edward Sothern as Lord Dundreary; played with Sothern in the same piece in London and the British provinces, 1867. In 1868 he appeared in New York as Toby Twinkle in "All That Glitters Is Not Gold "; 1869 played in San Francisco as Graves in Bulwer's Money"; brought out at the Park Theater, New York City, 1874, Mark Twain's "The Gilded Age," and as Col. Mulberry Sellers achieved his greatest success.

66

Raymond Lul'ly. See LULL, RAMON.

Raynal', Guillaume Thomas François, 171396; French historian; b. St.-Geniez, Aveyron; joined the Jesuits; became, 1747, a priest of St. Sulpice, Paris, but was soon dismissed for offensive conduct, and, leaving the Church, took up literary work; published numerous volumes, including "History of the Divorce of Henry VIII from Catharine," "Philosophical and Political History of European Settlements and Commerce in the Two Indies," which was condemned and ordered to be burned by Parliament, so liberal were its sentiments. cape arrest, Raynal fled to Switzerland; later lived at the court of Frederick II; was allowed to return to France, 1788; elected to the States General, 1789.

To es

Raʼzorback, one of the largest species of the whale tribe, the Balanoptera or Rorqualus borealis, the great rorqual; name given to a kind of hog, especially in the S. part of the U. S.

COMMON RAZOR SHELL.

Read, Thomas Buchanan, 1822-72; American poet and painter; b. Chester Co., Pa.; studied sculpture at Cincinnati, but turned his attention to painting, which he practiced in New York City, 1841, and afterwards at Boston and Philadelphia; went to Florence, Italy, 1850, and resided there, with few intermissions, till 1872; author of " Poems," "The New Pastoral," "The Wagoner of the Alleghanies," "A Summer Story," Sheridan's Ride and Other Poems." Among his paintings are the wellknown portraits of Mrs. Browning and of Longfellow's children, and the painting illustrating his "Sheridan's Ride."

Reade, Charles, 1814-84; English novelist; lished, 1852, "Peg Woffington," a novel, which b. Ipsden, Oxford; called to the bar, 1843; pubgave him an immediate reputation, and afterwards issued many novels and tales, among which are "Christie Johnstone," "Never Too Late to Mend," "Love Me Little, Love Me 99.66 Hard Long," "The Cloister and the Hearth," "A TerCash," "Put Yourself in His Place," rible Temptation," "A Woman Hater," etc. Most of his novels were successfully dramatized by himself or by Boucicault, and he wrote several independent plays.

Reading (rěd'ing), capital of Berkshire, England; on the Kennet, near junction with Thames; 36 m. W. of London; contains ruins, surrounded by public gardens, of a Benedictine abbey founded by Henry I; modern structures include the Renaissance municipal buildings, containing a free library, science and art schools, etc.; the assize courts, and the grammar school. Reading has manufactures of silk, velvet, and ribbons, a huge biscuit factory, and adjoining the town is a seed nursery covering 10,000 acres. Pop. of municipal borough (1908) 81,647.

Reading, capital of Berks Co., Pa.; on the Schuylkill River and Canal; 54 m. E. by N. of Harrisburg; is in a farming region; has large for its manufactures, especially of iron and trade and excellent shipping facilities; is noted steel; has a water system that cost $1,500,000, parks, principal shops of the Philadelphia and Mineral Springs and Pennsylvania Common Reading Railroad, manufactures of foundry liquors, hosiery, stoves, brick and tile, brass and machine-shop products, woolen hats, malt goods, and planing-mill products; Reading, St. Joseph's, and Homœopathic Medical and Surgical hospitals, Home for Orphans, about sixty churches, and public-school property valued at $1,216,850. Reading was founded, 1748, incorporated as a borough, 1783; chartered as city, 1847. Pop. (1906), 91,141.

a

Readjust'ers, in U. S. history, a party in Virginia, indorsed by the Republicans, who

REAL

favored a partial repudiation of the state debt, which in 1861 was over $33,000,000; with interest, amounted to $45,000,000 in 1875. Various vexatious attempts were made to pass laws to prevent the bondholders from realizing on their coupons. In 1878 the unpaid interest was funded at fifty cents on the dollar and new bonds issued. In 1879 an attempt to scale down the debt was vetoed by the Democratic governor. In 1892 an arrangement was finally made with the creditors.

Re'al, in Spanish and Portuguese countries, a coin and money of account. The old silver real (the eighth of the piastre, peso, or dollar) was long a familiarly current coin in the U. S., where it was worth twelve and a half cents, and bore various popular names. In Spain the real is now about five cents. In Portugal forty reis make one real, but it is never coined. In Spanish America the real has various local values.

REAPING AND MOWING MACHINES statement of the facts. The picture of a saint with his or her attributes is generally very traditional. In opposition to these, realism would choose religious enthusiasm seen among living and humble people, or a faithful portrait of a military or civic parade, or a sailor risking his life in the way of duty. That is to say, the realist paints what he has seen and known, and whatever ideas of dignity or humility he may wish to convey will be given to the common scenes and the actual persons of his own experience. Apart from the choice of subject, realism chooses a manner of representing men and things which will give them nearly as they are to ordinary human observation.

Real Pres'ence, Doc'trine of the, part of the professed belief of the Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, and other ancient churches, according to which "Christ is contained whole and entire under either species-i.e., that His body, blood, soul, and divinity are given both under the form of bread and under that of wine." In the Anglican Church the real presence is maintained, but so defined as to avoid the im

Re'alism, as opposed to nominalism, the doctrine that universals (notions of species and genera, such as man, animal) have real exist ences corresponding to them. In the Middle Ages the disputes of the SCHOOLMEN developed this doctrine into sharp contrast with nominalism. The dispute was not an idle one, but involved the theological and metaphysical question of personal individuality. At an earlier period Boethius and St. Augustine had been decided Realists; so were all Platonists and Neoplatonists. Roscellinus in the eleventh cen tury boldy announced nominalism, and applied it to the Trinity, making three Gods, but no unity. Realism prevailed against him, if not by argument, at least by authority. The great Realists of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were Anselm, William of Champeaux, Gilbertus Porretanus, John of Salisbury; of the thirteenth century, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and

Duns Scotus. Their doctrine was universalia ante rem (in God's mind), in re (in things), and post rem (in man's thought). Realism may be (a) psychological, holding in regard to artificial things-e.g., table or chair-that the general notion or name conventionally signifies the purpose or design which creates such things, and therefore corresponds to what reality they possess; (b) natural, a realism which recognizes the natural objective processes in nature and mind.

ence-i.e., in "the presence of the holy sacrament of the Lord's Supper of the body and blood of Christ in a corporeal or materially substantive manner." On the contrary, the sacrament, but in the worthy receiver of the real presence is not "to be sought for in the sacrament"; but as, "with the natural bread in the sacrament, there is present the spiritual bread which is Christ's body," it is none the less real. See EUCHARIST.

Real Prop'erty. In the law of the U. S. and of England the term "real property" or "real estate" is applied to all those species of property where the material objects over which the rights of ownership or of user extend over things real-that is, lands or articles regarded by the law as equivalent to land. The term land" includes not only the soil, but also all those objects which are either actually or constructively attached or affixed to it so as to become in contemplation of the law a part thereof. It also embraces rents, franchises, and the extensive group of rights in or over the land of another person which are collectively known as "easements" or "servitudes."

Reap'ing and Mow'ing Machines', mechanical devices for cutting grain or grass, usually by

REAPER USED BY ANCIENT GAULS.