PUFFIN

Puf'fin, any bird of the auk family (Alcida), belonging to the genera Fratercula and Lunda, which are characterized by high, compressed, highly colored bills. The best-known species is the common puffin, coulterneb, or sea parrot (F. arctica), found abundantly on both sides of the Atlantic. This bird is about a foot long, black above, white below, with a gray face and black collar about the neck.

THE PUFFIN.

The Arctic puffin breeds in burrows and lays a single white egg with a few faint gray markings at the large end. A closely related species (F. corniculata), known as the horned puffin, from the rather long outgrowth on the upper eyelids, occurs in the N. Pacific, as does also the tufted puffin (Lunda cirrhata), a rather larger bird with a long tuft of yellowish feathers curving backward from above either eye.

Pug, small, short-haired, short-muzzled breed of dogs, represented by at least three varieties, probably derived from the bulldog. The head should be massive, forehead wrinkled, eyes large and prominent, body short and wide, tail tightly curled. Color fawn with black muzzle and a dark spot on forehead, and dark lines down the back. The pug is a stupid but good-natured dog.

PULMONATA

Olympic Mountains on the W.; one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the world; 100 m. long, has a coast line of 1,600 m., and an area of 2,000 sq. m.; has very many bays, coves, islands, channels, and inlets; is very deep even abreast of the shores, and forms of itself a magnificent harbor, though lacking in good anchorages on account of its depth; tide varies from 9 ft. at the N. to 15 in the narrow inlets at the extreme S. Along its shores lie Seattle, Tacoma, and Olympia, with many other rapidly growing places. The entrance to the sound is dominated by the British naval establishment of Esquimault; but the U. S. has a naval station at Port Orchard, 16 m. S. of Seattle.

Pulas'ki, Casimir (Count), 1748-79; Polish military officer; b. Lithuania; son of Count Joseph Pulaski, who, 1768, formed the Confederation of Bar for the preservation of the liberties of Poland; in 1769 joined the national struggle against the despotism of King Stanislaus Augustus; was for some time commander of the insurgents, and made a bold attempt to seize the king in Warsaw. Being outlawed on the failure of this attempt, he escaped to Turkey, 1772; participated in a war against Russia; went to France, 1775, where he made the acquaintance of Franklin, and offered his services to the cause of American independence. Arriving at Philadelphia, 1777, he joined the army as a volunteer; distinguished himself at the battle of Brandywine; appointed by Congress brigadier general, and given command of the cavalry; took part in the battle of Germantown; formed at Valley Forge, 1778, an independent corps of lighthorse and infantry called Pulaski's Legion, officered chiefly by foreigners. In February, 1779, he set out for the South; reached Charleston, May 8th; made a vigorous but unsuccessful attack on the British advance guard, May 11th; was given command of the French and American cavalry; in the siege of Savannah was mortally wounded in the assault of October 9th; was carried on board the U. S. brig Wasp in Savannah, where he died; was buried at sea.

Pul'kowa, village near St. Petersburg, Russia; 10 m. N. is the famous Nicholas Central Observatory, founded by the Czar Nicholas, 1838-39. The Pulkowa Observations are published by the Academy of St. Petersburg. One of the largest telescopes in the world, a 30-in. refractor, was erected here, 1882.

Puget (pü-zha'), Pierre, 1622-94; French painter, sculptor, and architect; b. ChâteauPull'man, George Mortimer, 1831-97; AmerFollet, near Marseilles; worked as a carver in ican inventor; b. Chautauqua Co., N. Y.; bewood in Florence; as an architect in Marseilles, came first a cabinetmaker, then a building where he designed the new Hôtel de Ville; at contractor; removed to Chicago, 1859; invented Genoa, where he designed palaces and prothe Pullman palace car, and, 1863, began buildduced important sculptures and paintings; ing the cars that have since borne his name; 1668-70, was employed at Toulon in the artis-organized, 1867, the Pullman Palace Car Co., tic decoration of government ships; later did architectural and other work at Marseilles, Toulon, and other cities. The Louvre Museum contains several of his sculptures.

Puget (pū'jet) Sound, arm of the Pacific, extending S. from the Straits of Juan de Fuca, in State of Washington, and between the Coast Range Mountains on the E. and the

and was its president till death; devised the vestibule train, 1887; founded a model factory town of Pullman, near Chicago, 1880.

Pulmona'ria. See LUNGWORT.

Pulmona'ta, or Pulmonif'era, order of Gasteropod mollusca in which gills are absent, the animal breathing air by means of a "lung" formed by the ramifications of the blood vessels

PUMP

PUMPKIN

ing water, but by forcing it into a vessel | revolve as indicated by the arrow. The water against a pressure, as in the case of the feed is carried around in the spaces between the pumps of steam boilers. Pumps for operating teeth. The close meshing of the teeth preon air are known as air pumps, air compres- vents its return between the gears, and it is sors, blowers, etc. Power may be applied by forced through the discharge pipe, entering the a piston moving to and fro in a cylinder, or by case through the supply pipe under the action a wheel revolving in a box. Rotary pumps, in of atmospheric pressure. No valves are neceswhich the latter method is used, may be sim- sary with this pump, though a valve in the ply force pumps or suction and force pumps, suction pipe is convenient to prevent the pump the power being applied by direct pressure or from running down.

A

FIG. 1.-FORCE PUMPS.

B

by centrifugal force. It is usual to denominate them rotary force pumps and centrifugal pumps. The cylinder and piston force pump is shown in Fig. 1, A. When the piston P is raised, water will rush into the chamber through v, and when the piston is depressed this valve will close, while the valve w will be raised by the water, which is forced up into the pipe d. On raising the piston again, the pressure being removed from beneath the valve w, the weight of water above will cause it to close and thus prevent any return.

The functions of the common suction pump depend on the relative pressure of a column of water within the pipe and that of the atmospheric pressure on the water outside of it. Atmospheric pressure is capable of sustaining, under ordinary conditions, a column of water 33.8 ft. high. Consequently, if the lower end of a vertical tube of sufficient length is immersed in water and the tube completely exhausted of air, the water will rise 33.8 ft. above its level in the reservoir. The action of the common suction pump will therefore be understood. By a slight change in the form of the suction pump, and the addition of a valve in the discharge pipe, the lift pump is produced, and water may be raised to a height corresponding to the amount of power applied. Removing the lower valve and immersing the pump till the upper valve in the piston is below the surface of the external water, the machine becomes simply a lift pump. If a solid piston head is placed above the discharge pipe, it will, when moved downward, force the water through the additional valve, and technically it then becomes a force pump.

The rotary pump consists of two gear wheels with large and long teeth, closely fitting each other and the case in which they revolve. They

FIG. 2.-COMMON SUCTION
PUMP.

Pump'kin, any plant of the genus Cucurbita, of the gourd family. There are three species of this genus in common cultivation: C. pepo, C. moschata, and C. maxima. These species are probably native to the New World. The first one is the pumpkin of N. America. The summer or warty crook-neck squashes and the bush scallop and patty-pan squashes are of this species, and here belong, also, the common inedible ornamental gourds, as this term is understood in the U. S. The second species is the parent of the large, striped winter or Canada crook-neck squashes, and the Cushaw pumpkins

PUN

Pun, kind of play on words, in which a word is capable of being understood in two or more quite different senses, the combination of which, or the mental change from one to the other, presents an odd idea, generally a ludicrous one. Punning is usually considered the lowest species of wit, being in general purely mechanical in character. The figure of speech called paronomasia by writers on rhetoric, and defined by them as the use of words in the same connection which are similar in sound, but dissimilar in sense," is simply punning. This was a favorite form of expression among the Hebrews, and the books of the Old Testament, in the original, abound in examples of it.

Pu'na, or Despobla'do, in Peru and Bolivia, any very high, arid, and uninhabitable tableland; synonymous with páramo, used in Colombia. In a special sense, a high plain between two subchains of the Cordillera, extending from about lat. 13° S. southward into Bolivia.

Puna (India). See POONA.

PUNISHMENT

most variously used. Punctuation is to some extent a matter of taste and judgment, rather than of rigid rule. Certain writers seem to aim at using the largest possible number of points; others try to use the fewest points possible. As might be expected, the best punctuation lies between these two extremes. There is also some room for individual preference in pointing. Whether a parenthetical expression should be set off by commas, by the dash, or by marks of parenthesis, is often to be decided by individual taste. The same may be said of the use of the semicolon, some writers using the comma or the period, according as the separation requires the more or less distinctive mark.

stroyed.

Pu'nic Wars, three great wars between the Carthaginians (Punici) and the Romans. The first (264-241 B.C.) was a contest for the possession of Sicily, which was finally won by the Romans; the second (218-202 B.C.) was initiated by the capture of Saguntum by Hannibal, who thereupon made his great invasion Punch, or Punchinel'lo, kind of puppet show of Italy, and was closed by the Roman victory exhibited in the streets of European cities, es- at Zama; the third was undertaken by the pecially of Italy. It origin has been obscurely Romans with the express intention of finally traced to the Atellan farces of ancient Rome, destroying Carthage, lasted 149-146 B.C., and but in its present popular form the drama is though the city made a most heroic and perascribed to Silvio Fiorillo, an Italian play-sistent defense, it was at last utterly dewright who flourished about 1600. The actors in the performance are wooden puppets, of whom the principal are Punchinello (in English Mr. Punch), his wife (called in English Mrs. Judy), and their dog Toby. The puppets are moved by the exhibitor, who puts his hands under the dress, making the second finger and thumb serve for the arms, while the forefinger works the head; he also supplies a comic dialogue, varying his voice to suit the different characters. The French sometimes employ a cat instead of the dog Toby. Puppet shows of an essentially similar character, but often much more elaborate, are common in China and Japan.

Punctuation, act or art of dividing literary composition into sentences and parts of sentences to show grammatical or sometimes rhetorical relations, and thus assist the reader in apprehending the writer's meaning. Ancient manuscripts were not punctuated until after 364 B.C., when it became customary to place a mark of separation after each word. The beginnings of our present system are said to date from the time of Manutius (Manuzio), the first of a famous family of Italian printers, who died in 1515. In English writings a period was first used, though without great regularity, to indicate a break of any sort in the composition. In addition to this, a period on the line or above it, sometimes an inverted semicolon, was used in poetry to mark a metrical rather than a syntactical division. Caxton, the father of English printing, used only an oblique line to indicate the divisions of discourse.

The principal marks of punctuation in modern English are the comma, semicolon, colon, period, interrogation, and exclamation points, of which the last two are mainly rhetorical. Of these the comma is most frequently and

Pun'ishment, in criminal law, the suffering or deprivation of the enjoyment of rights which is visited on those who violate the penal law. The object and the methods of administering punishment for crime among crudely civilized peoples are based chiefly on the idea of retribution, or the vindication of the law on the offender, and the expiation of his crime by reparation to the injured person. With the development of the idea of the state and of the duties of the citizen to the state, crime comes to be looked on more as a wrong against the community, and the right to inflict punishment is taken from the individual and vested in the state alone. Punishments inflicted for the protection of society may be divided into those which disable or remove wholly or partially the ability of the criminal; those which are intended to deter him from committing it again; and those which are intended to act as a deterrent to others. The punishments of the first class include such forms as capital punishment, deportation, mutilation, branding, perpetual imprisonment, etc. Punishments of the second class include those which may deter the criminal from the repetition of his crime, either by the reformation of the criminal or by inflicting suffering or some other form of punishment dreaded by the criminal, such as public indignity or great cruelty. Punishments of the third class consist almost wholly in the infliction of cruelty or public disgrace. The principal forms of criminal punishment now in use among civilized nations are as follows: death, perpetual imprisonment with or without hard labor, imprisonment for determinate periods, enforced labor in mines, galleys, etc., banishment to penal settlements, pecuniary fines, and in certain cases the infliction of the lash. The criminal is also often

PUNJAB

PURGATORY

deprived of political or civil rights belonging | every variety of legendary tradition in other to citizenship, such as the electoral franchise, subjects. Six of them relate to Brahma, six capacity to testify in courts of justice, or to to Vishnu, and six to Siva. hold office, etc. See JAIL; PRISON.

Punjab', or Panjab (Persian, country of the five rivers "), province in the NW. of British India; bounded N. by the NW. Frontier Province and Kashmir, E. by Tibet and the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, S. by Rajputana, SW. by Sind, W. by Baluchistan and the NW. Frontier Province; area, 97,209 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 20,330,339; capital, Lahore. It is watered by the Sutlej, Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, and Ravi rivers; divided into about forty native states, of which the most important are Patiala, Bahawulpur, Juid, Nabha, Kapurthala, Maudi, Sirmur (Nahan), and Chamba; | chief cities, Delhi, Lahore, Amritsar, Rawalpindi, Multan, and Umballa; has in general a very fertile soil, but is irrigated on an extensive scale, owing to insufficient rainfall; greatest staple, wheat; other large crops, sugar, rice, cotton, and indigo; manufacturing industry largely developed in the chief cities. Inhabitants consist of Hindus of many races, Afghans, and Tibetans; about one half Mohammedan, and greater part of remainder Hindus. In the first Sikh War, 1845-46, Great Britain occupied the territory on the left bank of the Sutlej; in the second, 1848-49, the remainder of the country. A portion of the province was set off, 1901, to form the NW. Frontier Province.

Punt, or Pun-t, land on the Red Sea, from which the Egyptians made imports, at first indirectly and afterwards directly, during a large portion of their history, extending from the early dynasties down to Ptolemaic times. During a part of the time regular tribute was rendered in kind to the Pharaohs. Its exact location has been disputed, but the weight of argument seems to favor the view that it lay on the W. side of the Red Sea, or on the S. side of the Gulf of Aden on the Somali coast, especially as Punt is often classed in the monuments with Ethiopia or Cush. It was ordinarily reached from Egypt by way of the caravan route from Koptos to Kosseir through the Hammamat valley, and thence by ship.

Punta Arenas (pôn'tä ä-rā'näs), or Puntarenas, capital of comarca of same name and principal port of Costa Rica on the Pacific; on the E. side of Gulf of Nicoya; terminus of Costa Rican railway system; has a shallow harbor, considerable trade, and generally healthful climate. Pop. (1907) 3,194.

Pup'pets. See MARIONETTES; PUNCH.

Purace (pô-rä'sa), highest active volcano of the Andes of Colombia, ESE. of Popayan, Cauca; 15,420 ft. Severe eruptions have several times occurred. It is impossible at any time to enter the crater, owing to the hot and suffocating vapors.

Pura'nas, series of eighteen old traditional stories, chiefly in Sanskrit verse, compiled by an ancient sage named Vyasa, the supposed founder of the Vedanta philosophy. They contain the history of the gods interwoven with

Pur'cell, Henry, 1658-95; English composer; b. Westminster; appointed organist of Westminster Abbey, 1680; organist of the Chapel Royal, 1682. His sacred works have held their own, commanding the admiration of modern critical opinion. His dramatic and chamber music is also admittedly the work of real genius, despite the change of style, etc., which the centuries have brought about.

Purdue' Univer'sity. See INDIANA UNIVER

SITY.

Pure Food Law, an act of U. S. Congress, approved June 30, 1906, in effect January 1, 1907, to prevent the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated, misbranded poisonous, or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors. The estimation of standards is intrusted to the Department of Agriculture, Treasury Department, and the Department of Commerce and Labor. In 1908 there were twenty-one laboratories for the examination of products, in addition to the main laboratory at the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture. During 1908 more than 13,000 samples were collected and examined, and about 800 were found adulterated or misbranded. The enforcement of the law is in charge of the Department of Agriculture. The penalty for the violation of the law is a fine not to exceed $500 or one year's imprisonment, or both, for the first offense. The law is applicable to food or drugs introduced into any state from any other state or from any foreign country. See ADULTERATION.

Pur'gatives, substances that produce discharges from the bowels. Many drugs are purgative in sufficient dose, but those available in medicine as cathartics, and in common use, are castor oil, rhubarb, aloes, and calomelmild agents, causing only fluid stools; certain salts, producing watery discharges, as magnesium citrate and sulphate, sodium phosphate, and potassium and sodium tartrate; and a group of vegetable nature, more or less irritant to the intestines. These are senna, jalap, podophyllum, scammony, colocynth, gamboge, croton oil, and elaterium. Setting aside senna, the others last mentioned are called drastic cathartics, from their irritant properties. There are many other substances which have a mild effect upon the bowels, and are called laxatives. The more prominent of these are magnesia and magnesium carbonate and sulphur among inorganic substances, and cascara sagrada, manna, tamarinds, prunes, figs, and other fruits among vegetable. Purga. tives operate partly by quickening the muscular contractions of the intestines, and partly by determining an abundant pouring out of fluid into the intestinal canal. They are used to empty the bowels, and also to relieve congestion of distant organs and to induce the absorption of collections of fluid.

Purgatory, according to the Roman Catholic and Oriental churches, a place in which the souls of those who died in the state of