PRINCETON

PRINTING

Prince'ton, borough in Mercer Co., N. J.; on the Delaware and Raritan Canal; 10 m. NE. of Trenton; on a high ridge, commanding an extensive view of the surrounding country; contains quaint colonial houses and many fine modern residences. The old graveyard has been called "the Westminster of America" because of the eminent persons buried there. Princeton is the seat of Princeton University, the theological seminary of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. of America (found ed 1812), and of Evelyn College, for young

women. It is also noted as the scene of a battle in the Revolutionary War which proved the initiative of operations by which the British were driven from the greater part of the two Jerseys. On January 2, 1777, Cornwallis advanced the greater part of his army toward

Trenton, intending to attack the Americans on the following day. Washington, learning that only a small force remained at Princeton, made a night march thither, surprised the British at daybreak on January 3d, and routed and dispersed them, inflicting a loss of 100 killed and wounded and of 230 prisoners, and sustaining a loss of less than thirty. Though the forces engaged were small, the result was of great value in encouraging the colonists, who had become disheartened by many reverses. Pop. (1905) 6,029.

Princeton Univer'sity (formerly COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY), institution of learning at Princeton, N. J.; chartered 1746 by the Colony of New Jersey; held its first sessions in Elizabethtown, Jonathan Dickinson being first president; obtained a charter from Gov. Belcher, 1748; located in Newark, with Aaron Burr as president, 1748-57; returned to Princeton, 1757; had as president during part of 1758 the famous Jonathan Edwards. Its main building was occupied as a barrack by both American and British troops during the Revolutionary War; commencement exercises, 1783, were attended by Washington and the Continental Congress. It had among its presidents John Witherspoon, 1768-94, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; Ashbel Greene, 1812-22; James Carnahan, 1823-54; James McCosh, 1868-88; Francis Landey Patton, 1888-1902, during whose incumbency the institution became Princeton Univ. (1896), and Woodrow Wilson, 1902- Though founded under auspices of the Presbyterian Synod of New York, and till recent times closely connected with the Presbyterian denomination, the institution is nonsectarian. The campus, over 1 sq. m. in extent, contains more than thirty buildings, many of them remarkable for architectural beauty. These include Alexander Hall, used for public exercises, lectures, and university gatherings; Chancellor Greene Library (about 342,000 volumes), Nassau Hall, Physical Science Laboratory, Biological Museum and Laboratory, Marquand Chapel, Art Museum, Halstead Observatory, School of Science Building, Blair Hall and Stafford Little Hall (dormitories), Gymnasium, McCosh Hall. A lofty

Prin'cipal. See AGENT.

Print'ing and Printing Press'es. PRINTING is a process which is involved in making copies, generally in ink and by pressure, of letterpress or of designs engraved, etched, or drawn on a solid surface. In its most restricted sense it is synonymous with typography, and includes typesetting, electrotyping, stereotyping, etc., and the taking of impressions from the inked surface of the type thus set up, or of plates made from them on presses specially constructed for the purpose; but in a wider sense lithography, engraving, zincography, and embossing books in raised letters for the blind, as well as the reproduction of photographic images by the action of the sun on specially preLetterpared paper, etc., are all included. press printing, or typography, alone will be treated in this article.

Printing was probably practiced by the Chinese as early as the sixth century, but does not appear to have come into general use until the tenth, since which time their printed literature has become very voluminous. In the original Chinese method, a written sheet of paper is laid face downward on a board of hardwood, to the smooth surface of which the ink is transferred, and then all except the inked lines is cut away, leaving the characters in relief. In printing from this page the workman applies the ink with a brush, then lays the sheet of paper on the plate and passes another soft brush over the back. Movable types of various kinds have been used, but the system of block printing still prevails. The invention of printing by movable types has been claimed for Laurens Coster, of Haarlem; Johann Gutenberg, of Mentz; Johann Faust, or Fust, of Mentz, and Peter Schöffer, the son-in-law of Faust. Dutch authorities have generally held that Coster was the real inventor, and place the date of the invention 1423. thorities regard Gutenberg as the real inventor. According to them, he practiced the art at Strassburg as early as 1436. In 1450 he entered into partnership with Faust at Mentz; but the partnership being dissolved, 1455, Faust carried on the business by himself, and subsequently in partnership with Schöffer. Gutenberg also appears to have carried on the business of a printer until abt. 1465. In 1456 he completed the printing of the Bible in Latin. The art was conducted secretly at Mentz till 1462, when that city was besieged by Count Adolphus of Nassau, the printing houses were broken up, and the printers scattered themselves into various countries. The art was first practiced in Italy, 1465, at Subiaco, in the Roman territory, and in Rome about four years after. It was introduced into Paris, Milan, and Venice, 1469; into England, at West

German au

PRINTING

minster, probably 1474, by Caxton; into Barcelona, Spain, 1475, and into various other cities of Europe about the same time. The first printing press in America was set up in Mexico, 1536; then followed Lima, 1586; Cambridge, Mass., 1639; New London, Conn., 1709; Charleston, S. C., 1730; and Newport, R. I., 1732.

In 1041 a Chinese blacksmith cut the most frequently used characters on cubes of porcelain paste, which he then baked until hardened. These, being of different heights and thicknesses, were placed in a kind of cement, pressed down evenly, and printed from; but this process seems not to have extended after his time.

The merit of Gutenberg's invention was largely his superior method of making types by punch, matrix, and mold. When he began his experiments he found already in common use paper, printing ink, engraving in relief, some form of printing press, and the art of printing playing cards and block books. Possibly isolated types were then in use, but they could not be used to profit, because they were not scientifically made and sufficiently exact. The printing press is never mentioned by any early writer as an important factor in the development of the invention. Gutenberg's process of type making has been improved in details, but its elementary principles have not been found susceptible of improvement.

It is interesting to note the peculiarities of the first printed works. An edition consisted of a limited number, for 200 or 300 was then esteemed a large issue. The size was either large or small folio, sometimes quarto. The leaves were without running title, direction word, folios, or paragraphs. The words were printed close together; abbreviations were numerous; the orthography was arbitrary; the sentences were distinguished only by the single or the double point, but subsequently the virgule was used for the simple pause, answering to our comma. The initial letters at the beginning of a chapter or important division were left blank, to be filled in by hand. In some works the embellishments surrounding the text were illuminated in colors, even gold and silver, and charged with saints, birds, flowers, etc. The printer's name, residence, etc., were either omitted or put at the end. The date was often omitted, sometimes obscurely indicated, or printed either at full length or by numerical letters, and sometimes in several ways together, as "One Thousand cccc. and lxiiii.," etc., but always at the end. A variety of characters was uncommon; as a rule a Gothic letter of the same size was used through

the work.

At the present time most books are printed from electrotype plates, made from the type after it is set up and made up into pages. Imposition is the method of so arranging the pages that they will be in consecutive order when the sheet or section of a book is folded. The imposition of the octavo (Fig. 1) will illustrate the principle. The pages are adjusted to the required distance apart according to the size of the paper and the margins to be obtained.

PRINTING

10

6

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The signature is a figure or a letter of the alphabet placed at the foot of the first page of every form, or a section or subsection of a form, to denote the order of the sheets, and serves as a guide to the binder. The English generally use for signatures the alphabetical letters, omitting J, V, W, which were not used in the Gothic letters of the early printers; and if the sheets extend beyond Z,, the letters are doubled or preceded by a figure. The practice in the U. S. and in most European nations is to use figures, a section to be inset being distinguished by a star after the signature figure. The star shows that that part of the sheet is cut off and placed inside the first part when folded.

8

6

9

16

13

FIG. 1.-IMPOSITION OF THE OCTAVO.

The descriptive names of the sizes of books refer to the size of the leaves, and originated from the number of leaves into which a sheet of paper was folded after printing. Paper is now supplied in any size of sheet, and the size of the page of the book varies accordingly. The book when bound is named according to the nearest size of the regular sheets.

Printing ink is a mechanical mixture of prepared oil and smoke black or other coloring matter. News ink has more of oil and book ink more of black. When properly made it "distributes" or freely spreads out in a very thin film on the inking rollers and the types, is readily transferred to paper by impression, and adheres to it when dry without smearing or fading. In the early days of printing the ink was applied to the type by large leathercoated balls. Each ball was fitted to a handle of wood. Rollers wound with cloth and covered with soft leather were next introduced, but to B. Forster, of England, is due the invention (abt. 1820) of the present roller. These rollers consist of a composition of glue and molasses, boiled together, and molded upon a cylinder of wood incasing an iron rod, which works in a handle or in a proper frame for large presses.

composition now most approved for its greater durability is a combination of glue, glycerin, and sugar.

Paper is usually supplied by the ream of 20 quires of 24 sheets, or 480 sheets per ream, but the paper maker meets the requirements of his customer in this respect. Five hundred and twelve sheets and 516 sheets per ream are often supplied. For the web perfecting press paper is supplied on a roll, a single roll containing the equivalent of 5,000 to 10,000 sheets.

The PRINTING PRESS is a machine for taking impressions from an inked surface on paper, used for books, newspapers, handbills, etc. Gu

FIG. 4. THE ADAMS BED-AND-PLATEN PRESS.

1822, and that, 1827, by the Washington press of Samuel Rust. In this the bed slides on a track, and is run in and out under the platen by turning a crank, which has belts attached to a pulley upon its shaft. The impression of the platen is given by means of a bent lever acting on a toggle-joint, and the platen is lifted by springs on either side. Of all the hand presses, this is the only one that has survived.

The "bed-and-platen" system of printing was up to the middle of the nineteenth century the favorite method for fine books and illustrations, and it is still used to some extent. The best press of this description is that devised and patented by Isaac Adams, of Boston, 1830 and 1836, and by Otis Tufts, of same place, 1834. In this type of press the bed, carrying the type or plates, rolls back and forth under the platen. The latter is drawn downward to make the impression by a toggle-joint. These presses have not been made for a number of

FIG. 3.-THE WASHINGTON HAND-PRESS.

tenberg's press consisted of two upright timbers with crosspieces of wood to stay them together at the top and bottom, and two intermediate cross timbers. On the lower of these the type was supported, and through the other a wooden screw passed, its lower point resting on the center of a flat wooden plate, called the "platen," which was thus screwed down on the type after the latter had been

FIG. 5. THE STOP-CYLINDER PRESS.

years, but some are still in use. Abt. 1832 Robert Hoe made the first cylinder press ever used in the U. S. It was the pattern known as the single large cylinder, the cylinder, carrying the paper, making one revolution for each impression in printing, and never stopping. Only a portion of the cylinder was employed to take the impression, the remainder of its circumference being turned down small

PRISCILLIAN

and two poems, "De Laude Anastasii impera- | toris," written abt. 512, and "Periegesis," "both in hexameters.

Priscillian, Bishop of Avila, in Spain; belonged to a noble Spanish family; founded a sect whose doctrines were a blending of Manichæism and Gnosticism. In 379 the existence of the sect became known, and in 380 the Council of Saragossa condemned its doctrines and excommunicated its founder. The influence of

Priscillian was too powerful, however, and his most zealous adversary, Bishop Ithacius of Ossonoba, was compelled to fly. He sought refuge with the usurper Maximus, who had Priscillian brought to trial before the Council of Treves, condemned, and put to death in 385. It was the first instance of a Christian being put to death for heresy, and it aroused the indignation of St. Martin of Tours, St. Ambrose, and others. The sect spread subsequently from N. Spain to Languedoc, and even into N. Italy, but disappeared entirely in the sixth century, after the second synod of Braga in 563. Up to 1885 it was supposed that no works of Priscillian had been preserved, but in that year G. Schepss discovered in a Würzburg MS. eleven tractates, which he proved to be by Priscillian.

Prism, a polyhedron two of whose faces are equal polygons, having their sides parallel and all the remaining faces parallelograms. The first-named faces are called bases, and the remaining ones make up what is called the lateral surface of the prism. The distance between the bases is the altitude of the prism. Pris'on, primarily a place of detention for debtors or persons charged with political or other crimes until they were tried or adjudged guilty or innocent of the offenses for which they were committed; later, the prison has become, to some extent, the place and instrument of punishment. Detention of debtors and of political and other offenders of Egypt and Palestine was very early an admitted necessity. The earliest instances of its use are found among the Egyptians, who devised measures of police of which other nations had not yet felt the want. There are numerous references to prisons in the Old Testament, but always as a place of detention simply. Among the Greeks and Romans the prison was generally only a place of detention. By the laws of Rome, a Roman citizen could not be cast into prison except by the direct command of the emperor. The usual method of detention for a Roman citizen was to chain his right arm to the left arm of a soldier. There were houses of detention in Rome which were used for the safe-keeping of slaves.

The prisons of the Inquisition in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, and Austria were not in the main intended so much for punishment as for detention-the punishment (often within the prison walls) consisting mainly in the racks, wheels, boots, thumbscrews, and other instruments of torture. On the Continent, and even in Great Britain, the idea of imprisonment, except in the case of political offenders, as constituting any part of the punishment of crime does not seem to have been

PRISON

recognized. There were jails, houses of detention, and prisons both in Great Britain and on the Continent, but they were filled with debtors, persons arrested for crime and awaiting trial, and those who had been sentenced to banishment or transportation, to slavery, to the galreform and improve the jails in England, as leys, or to execution. Attempts were made to well as on the Continent, by John Howard in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Beccaria in Italy, and Sir William Blackstone, Jeremy Bentham, and Mr. Eden in Great Britain, took up the work and went forward with

it. After a conflict of nearly thirty years the prisons and prison systems of Great Britain and Ireland were very thoroughly reformed; transportation ceased, and the convict prisons, though more expensive than they should be, are well managed, and many of their prisoners are reformed. Many of the convicts are employed in the great naval shipyard at Dartmouth and Portsmouth. The jails are cleanly, well ventilated, and for the most part have some employment for the prisoners, which keeps them from mischief and contributes a small sum toward the expense of their support. The reformatories for young offenders have, by reforming the young criminals, prevented the increase of criminal class, and greatly diminished the number and magnitude of crimes in the kingdom.

In the U. S. transportation has never been attempted as a means of ridding the community of the dangerous classes. Before the Revolutionary War the criminal code was very severe; death was the penalty of a great number of crimes. At the same time the prisons were in a wretched condition, hardly better than those in Great Britain. In 1786 Pennsylvania made the first effort at improvement of her prisons by the adoption of the solitary plan of discipline. Reforms were accomplished in Boston by the Prison Discipline Society, which existed from 1824 to 1844. The Prison Association of New York was organized in 1844. In 1821-23 the "congregated or silent system (now known as the Auburn system) was adopted at Auburn, N. Y., and soon attained such a reputation that it was adopted by other states, and with various modifications is now the prevalent system in the U. S. In