PORT OF SPAIN PORTSMOUTH strongly fortified naval station; has salt and | liest settlements made by the Spaniards within oyster-canning works; exports cattle, cotton, shoes, and honey. Pop. (1900) 17,975. Port of Spain, or Span'ish Town, capital of island of Trinidad; on Gulf of Paria; is the entrepôt for much of the English trade with the N. part of S. America; regular lines of steamers connect it with Europe, the U. S., Venezuelan ports, and the Orinoco. The harbor is safe, but vessels are obliged to anchor at some distance from the shore. Pop. (1901) 54,500. Por'to Ri'co (Spanish, PUERTO RICO), island of the U. S.; smallest of the Great Antilles; separated from Santo Domingo on the W. by the Mona Passage; has the Virgin Islands on the E.; area, 3,606 sq. m.; with dependent islands of Vieques, Mona, Culebra, etc., 3,790; est. pop. (1906) 1,037,028, about one third being mulattoes and negroes; chief towns, San Juan, Ponce, Mayaguez. Island traversed E. to W., a little S. of the middle of its breadth, by a broken range of mountains (the Sierra de Cayey, Cordillera Central, etc.), culminating in the NE. in the peak of El Yunque, 3,609 ft.; land N. and S. of this range undulating, hilly, and deeply cut by streams; largest rivers, the Rios Loiza, Bayamon, Morovis, Arecibo, Blanco, all N. of dividing ridge; no navigable streams; good harbors few; forest areas small, but abounding in valuable woods; gov ernment forest preserve, the Luquillo, covers about 65,000 acres. Climate seldom severe, even in the summer months; annual temperature at San Juan, 78° to 82°; annual rainfall, 60 to 100 in.; hurricanes occur not infrequently; earthquakes rarely, and are not violent. Mineral products include gold, silver, iron, copper, bismuth, tin, mercury, platinum, phosphates, and nickel. There are productive salt works. Chief agricultural products, coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, oranges, bananas, pineapples, and many kinds of vegetables. Stock raising a growing industry. Chief articles of export, sugar and molasses, cigars and leaf to- | bacco, fruits and nuts, cotton (raw and manufactured), coffee, hides and skins, straw and palm manufactures; chief imports from the U. S., rice, iron and steel manufactures, cotton goods, meats, lard, and dairy products, breadstuffs, manufactures of leather, timber, lumber, and wood. Value of imports domestic and foreign merchandise year ending June 30, 1907, $25,686,285; exports, $22,070,133, against $12,750,000, the highest figures under Spain. High, normal, and agricultural schools have been established; primary education is compulsory. San Juan has a Jesuit college. the present limits of the U. S., for important events during the Civil War, and as the rendezvous of the N. Atlantic squadron of the navy. The harbor is one of the finest in the world, and has a large dry dock. Pop. (1900) 601. DES nuns Port-Royal (properly PORT-ROYAL CHAMPS), monastery for Cistercian founded 1204 at Chevreuse, near Versailles, France; became a noted educational institution and lost to some degree its religious character; was reformed, 1608, by its abbess (see ARNAULD, MARIE ANGÉLIQUE); became Jansenistic. A branch, called Port-Royal de Paris, was established in Paris, 1626; original institution then became known as Port-Royal des Champs, at which place a new building was erected. The old building was erected by pious and learned men and became a famous Jansenist school. In 1690 the two monasteries were separated; Port-Royal des Champs was reorganized under the influence of the Jesuits, and existed until 1790; was suppressed, 1709; the nuns, for upholding Jansenism, were imprisoned in various monasteries. Port Saïd (sä-ed'), town of Egypt, at junction of the Suez Canal with the Mediterranean; grown up since the beginning of the canal, 1859. The inner harbor, on Lake Menzaleh, contains vast dockyards. About 2,000 ships, chiefly steamers, enter the port annually. Here is a colossal statue of De Lesseps. Pop. (1907) 49,884. Ports'mouth, town of Hampshire, England; on island of Portsea; 23 m. SE. of Southampton. The limits of the muncipal and parliamentary borough, which are identical, comprise Portsmouth proper, town of Portsea, suburbs of Landport and Southsea, and nearly the whole of Portsea Island. Its fortifications include the Hilsea lines and the forts of Portsdown Hill on the land side and the Spithead forts on the sea side. Portsea has a convict prison. Southsea is a fashionable watering place. Portsmouth harbor, 400 yards wide at its entrance between Portsmouth and Gosport, expands into a basin, stretching 4 m. inward, and affords anchorage to large war vessels at all times. The dockyard, the most important establishment of the kind in Great Britain, covers an area of 293 acres. Brewing is carried on, and there is considerable traffic in coal, timber, cattle, and agricultural produce. Portsmouth's importance began with Henry VIII; the town was fortified by Edward IV; and the works were continued at intervals afterwards. In 1642 it was taken by the Parliamentary forces. Pop. (1906) 205,000. Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus, 1493; conquered by the Spaniards under Ponce de Leon, 1509-18, and the natives extermiPortsmouth, capital of Scioto Co., Ohio; at nated; ceded to the U. S. as a result of the confluence of the Ohio and Scioto rivers; at S. terminus of the Ohio and Erie Canal; 100 m. war with Spain, 1898; has a governor and executive council, appointed by the President of S. of Columbus. The region is rich in agriculthe U. S., and a house of delegates, elected by tural lands and mineral resources, particularly the people, these together constituting the Leg-iron ore; city is a shipping point for a large islative Assembly. Port Roy'al, town in Beaufort Co., S. C.; 4 m. S. of Beaufort; noted for one of the ear Industrial establishvariety of productions. ments include rolling mills, iron and steel works, extensive shoe factories, lumber and planing mills, flour mills, stove foundries, sev PORTSMOUTH eral distilleries, fire-brick plants, furniture and veneer factories, and wheel works. Pop. (1906) est. at 20,714. PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR | write and have a clear income of 100 milreis possess the right of suffrage. Army on footing, 33,446 officers and men; war footing, 175,000; navy includes one armored cruiser and five protected cruisers. State religion the Roman Catholic, but other creeds are tolerated. Primary education nominally compulbut illiterate class still very large. Lisbon and Oporto have schools of medicine, law, fine arts, technology, etc. With sory, Portsmouth, capital of Norfolk Co., Va.; on Elizabeth River; opposite Norfolk, with which it is connected by ferry. The U. S. navy yard, officially known as the Norfolk Navy Yard, is at Gosport, the S. extremity of The Univ. of Cothe city. There are also a large dry dock, imbra is one of the oldest and most celebrated naval hospital, and marine barracks. Norfolk it constitutes a U. S. customs disin Europe. Portugal, wrested from the Motrict, from which are exported large quanti-hammedans abt. 1098, became the dowry of the ties of cotton, lumber, oak staves, naval stores, daughter of Alfonso VI, Prince of Castile, who pig iron, and, to N. cities, early vegetables; married Henry of Burgundy. Henry's son Alpop. (1906) est. 18,627. fonso Henriques (1128-85) took the title of king, drove the Moors S. and captured Lisbon. Abt. 1250 the Moors were finally driven from Algarve; revolution, 1383, caused throne to pass from the house of Burgundy to that of Aviz; John II (reigned 1481-95) broke the power of the nobles and made the crown absoPeriod 1419-1500 made notable by exlute. plorations of Bartholomeu Diaz, Vasco da Gama, etc.; colonization in Asia and S. America (Brazil), and the turning into Brazil of the whole stream of E. trade. Portugal was conquered by Philip II of Spain, 1580, and its commerce swept from the seas by the Dutch; independence gained with the support of England, 1640, and the crown given to the house of Bragança (still reigning). The Dutch, who had seized parts of Brazil, were driven out, Flight of 1654. Leading events since 1800: court to Brazil on French invasion, 1807; final deliverance of the country by the English, 1812; adoption of a popular constitution, result of a revolution, 1820; forced signing of same by King John, who returned from Brazil, 1821; usurpation of throne by Dom Miguel, 1828; overthrow of Miguel by Dom Pedro, former Emperor of Brazil, and placing on the throne of the latter's daughter Maria, 1834; boundary disputes with Great Britain over African possessions; dissolution of Parliament and reign of absolutism, 1907. Por'tugal, kingdom of Europe, occupying the SW. part of the Iberian Peninsula, between Spain and the Atlantic; area (continental portion), 34,254 sq. m.; of the islands of Madeira and the Azores, 1,236; pop. (1900) Portugal proper, 5,016,267; towns of over 20,000, Lisbon (capital), Oporto, Braga, Setubal, Funchal (Madeira). Colonial possessions in Africa (Guinea, Angola, etc.) and Asia (Goa, Timor, Macas, etc.) have area of 802,952 sq. m.; pop. abt. 9,150,000. The N. part of Portugal is essentially mountainous, and its scenery picturesque. The Serra de Estrella crosses the center. Its peaks attain 6,539 ft. S. Portugal consists of plains and rolling lands, varied toward the SW. by spurs of the Sierra Morena. Principal rivers rise in Spain; Minho and Guadiana, on the frontiers, are navigated by boats; Douro, which crosses the mountain region, also navigable for barges, d its mouth forms the harbor of Oporto; Tejo, or Tagus, crosses the S. plain, and its broadened mouth is the harbor of Lisbon. The N. and S. coasts generally rocky. Between Oporto and Cape Carvoeiro are extensive sand dunes, backed by marshes. Climate mild and equaOlives and ble; on the coasts frosts are rare. oranges grow well nearly everywhere, and palms flourish in the S. Rains are abundant. Available lands are generally very fertile. The cork oak grows wild and is cultivated. Most important mineral products, copper, antimony, manganese, lead, and salt from the coast lagoons; a little gold, zinc, iron, and coal are obtained. Chief agricultural products, maize, wheat, rye, oranges, olives, grapes for making wine; raising of oxen, sheep, goats, and swine an important industry. Principal articles of manufacture, wine, olive oil, canned fruits, cotton and silk thread, and cloths, veil stuffs, gold and silver filigree work, shoes, gloves. Cod, sardine, tunny, and whale fishMost imporeries employ nearly 38,000 men. tant exports, wine (including port), cork, fish, cotton and yarn, copper ore, olive oil, fruits and vegetables, timber. Port'uguese East Africa, colony of Portugal; bounded N. by German E. Africa, the Rorrima River forming part of the boundary; E. by Mozambique Channel; W. by Lake Nyassa, Rhodesia, and the Transvaal; chief divisions, Mozambique, Zembesia, and Laurenço Marques; area, 293,400 sq. m,; pop. abt. 8,250,000; chief ports, Mozambique, Ibo, Quilimane, Chinde, Beira, Inhambane, Lorenço Marques; surface mountainous in part; chief rivers, Rovuma, Zambesi, Limpopo; mineral products, gold, copper, coal, etc.; chief agricultural products, cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco; exports, mainly rubber, ores, beeswax, cottons. Portuguese Man-of-War, one of the group of Hydrozoa, belonging to the family Siphonophoræ. It is a free-swimming colony, the individuals of which have become highly differen Portuguese, like the Spanish, descended from Celto-Iberic tribes, more or less modified by Latin, Visigothic, and Moorish blood; their language strongly resembles the Spanish. Ed-tiated. ucated class comparatively small, but has nearly all the wealth and influence. Government a constitutional monarchy. Parliament consists of a house of peers and a house of delegates. Adult males who can read and 167 They are oceanic, and consist of a bladderlike expansion, which serves as a float, with a saillike crest on its upper side; from this are suspended individuals resembling great streamers, sometimes many feet in length, without mouths, but loaded with nettle cells PORTULACA that enable them to capture the food, which is conveyed to the second type, the nutritive polyps. Each of these is a simple tube, bearing a mouth, and within them the food is digested and distributed by means of a branching gastric cavity extending throughout the entire colony. Then there are individuals, like mouthless jellyfishes, which bear the eggs and care for the perpetuation of the colony; and, besides these, there may be some whose duty it is to defend the rest, and others whose active swimming movements, together with the wind, drive the colony about. The American species, Physalia arethusa, is brilliantly colored, the float being pink or purple and bright blue. It is armed with powerful batteries of nettle cells, and contact with them will cause severe pain in man. Most of the species inhabit tropical seas. Portula'ca. See PURSLANE. Po'rus, Greek form of the name of several kings of India, two of whom were met by Alexander in his conquest of the East. The first ruled E. of the Hydaspes, the passage of which he disputed, but Alexander prevailed by superior generalship. Porus, being captured, was honorably treated, and became the ally of Alexander, who enlarged his dominions, so that they extended from the Hydaspes to the Hyphasis. His cousin of the same name ruled over Gandaris, E. of the Hydraotes. He fled on the approach of Alexander, and his dominions were given to his kinsmen. Posei'don. See NEPTUNE. Po'sen, capital of province of Posen, Prussia; at confluence of the Zybina and Warthe; 150 m. E. of Berlin. The Prussian Govt. has made it one of its great fortified places. It contains many fine buildings, including a townhall and a cathedral, several good educational and benevolent institutions, and manufactures of tobacco, sealing wax, wax candles, leather, furs, liqueurs, gold and silver ware, woolen and linen fabrics, arms, and carriages. Posen is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric. Pop. (1905) 136,800. | POSTAL SERVICE their general laws of existence or succession. His second position is that science proceeds in a regular order, from the elementary relations of numbers to the highest complications of society and life. The "hierarchy of the positive sciences" thus came out in the following order: (1) Mathematics, (2) astronomy, (3) physics, (4) chemistry, (5) biology, (6) sociology (the most complex and specialized of all). As a result of his personal experiences, abt. 1845 Comte developed his philosophy into a religion of humanity. Religion he conceives to be the complete harmony of human existence in one Great Being, whom he calls Humanity. Religion, at first spontanenous, dissipates itself in fetichism and polytheism; next, inspired, it lifts its thoughts to the vague abstract unity of God; and finally, revealed or demonstrated, it finds its object in a living and active being, which is humanity. There was to be a class of philosophers corresponding to the class of priests under the old régime, with unlimited control over opinions. Marriage and an encyclopedic education were among the chief qualifications for the hierarchy. The archphilosopher, or high priest of Humanity," was to supersede the pope; and Paris was to be the holy city of the Positivist. 66 A new calendar was to be instituted, made up of saints' days, save that philosophers, poets, legislators, inventors, etc., were to be substituted for the saints of the old calendar; and for the Virgin Mother an antitype was found in the ideal of Humanity, symbolized as "a woman of thirty with a child in her arms." The group of Positivists in France and England is numerically small, but intellectually of high order. Veneration for woman as mother and wife permeates the whole of Positivism and is its most distinguished practical characteristic. Pos'se Comita'tus, law Latin phrase, meaning literally "the power of the county." By the common law the sheriff while engaged in executing process was authorized to summon to his aid, if necessary, all the men above the age of fifteen years within the county, with the exPosidon'ius, abt. 135-51 B.C.; Greek Stoic ception of the sick or infirm, ecclesiastics, and philosopher; b. Apamea, Syria; studied at peers, and they constituted the posse comitaAthens; settled in Rome, where he founded a tus. The same authority is given to the sherschool, which Cicero attended; was an extensive iff in the U. S., although its exercise is often traveler; made ambassador to Rome, 86; great-regulated by statute. The ordinary cases in est work, a history in fifty-two books, continuation of Polybius, embracing the period 145 82 B.C. Posi'tion Find'ers. See RANGE AND POSITION FINDERS. Pos'itivism, system of philosophy and religion founded by August Comte (1798-1857). Comte maintained that the phenomena of society conform to fixed and ascertainable laws, no less than the phenomena of chemical combination or planetary rotation. Comte's first position is that the human mind, historically and individually, passes through three stages of development the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, or scientific. In this last it is discerned that man can know nothing of causes, and is only able to refer phenomena to which such a resort is had to the assistance of private citizens are the quelling of riots, the overcoming of forcible seizures or detainers of land, the subduing of forcible rescues made or attempted of persons arrested pursuant to the command of a proper writ, and the resistance to any forcible measures in opposition to the execution of public justice. Post'al Service, that branch of the public service which is concerned particularly with the conveyance and delivery of letters and other documents, newspapers, book packets, etc.; the issue of money orders, and, in some instances, with the managements of telegraphs, telephones, savings banks, etc. The beginning of the present postal systems of the world are to be found in lines of cou POSTAL SERVICE mediate delivery by special messenger. Until 1774 there was no free delivery in England except in a few larger cities and towns. In the U. S. the free-delivery system in large cities was begun in 1863. This was extended in 1887 to all cities with a population of over 10,000, or of postal revenue of $10,000. In 1901 rural free delivery was instituted in the most favorable localities, and in 1908 there were in operation 39,516 routes. The money-order system had its origin in 1792, in a private venture of three English post-office clerks. In 1838 this business was incorporated with the post office. The system was introduced into the U. S. in 1864, and the number of domestic money orders issued in 1907-8 was 64,864,570; amount, $498,699,637; fees, $3,949,001; the number of international money orders, 3,711,640; amount, $88,972,388; fees, $754,884. POSTAL SERVICE riers, which rulers established for prompt | U. S. in 1885. A fee of ten cents secures imtransmission of governmental decrees and dispatches. The earliest known system was that established 559 B.C. by the King of Persia, who maintained relays of mounted men at six stations to forward his messages. Systems of this kind existed among the Romans in the time of Augustus (31 B.C.), and in France under Charlemagne; but the first actual letter post for commercial purposes appears to have originated in the Hanse towns early in the twelfth century. As early as 1252 royal messengers, called muncii, were employed in England for conveyance of letters; but until the time of Henry VIII no regular system of posts existed in England. In 1609 James I of England issued the proclamation forbidding all persons, not authorized by the master of the post, from collecting and delivering letters. This was the beginning of the state monopoly of letter carrying in England. In 1784 mail coaches were introduced. Steamships were first used for the conveyance of mail in 1821, and railways in 1830. The post office existed in America from its earliest settlement. Originally it was merely a receptacle in the coffee-house, where letters arriving from abroad were deposited, to be taken by those to whom they were addressed, or carried to them by their neighbors. The first legislation on the subject is found in the records of the General Court of Massachusetts, 1639. The colonial law of Virginia, 1657, required every planter to provide a messenger to convey the dispatches, as they arrived, to the next plantation. Postage or fixed charges for the conveyance of letters was first introduced into England abt. 1635, and until 1874 the rates fixed for various weights and distances changed frequently. In 1837 the utility of the post office in England was increased by the adoption of a uniform low rate for postage, a charge by weight and prepayment. Previous to this time postage was paid by the recipient. Stamps came into use in Great Britain in 1840, and were adopted by most countries during the following decade. In 1874 an international postal congress was held in Berne; in 1875 a postal union was organized, and the following uniform postage adopted: Five cents on prepaid and ten cents on unprepaid letters weighing not over oz.; newspapers not over 2 oz. in weight, one cent; books and other printed matter, samples, and patterns, not exceeding 83 oz., one cent for each 2 oz.; postal cards, two cents. The union now embraces nearly every country in the world. Since October 1, 1908, penny (two cents), postage has obtained between the U. S. and Great Britain. Since January 1, 1909, a rate of two cents has been fixed for letters between Germany and the U. S., provided the letters passed by sea direct, and not by way of Great Britain or France. Registration was introduced into England in 1814, and a system of insurance was established in Great Britain in 1892. In U. S. registration was introduced in 1854; an indemnity not to exceed $25 is now paid by the U. S. for the loss of a domestic registered package. Special delivery was introduced into the The collection and distribution of mail has been facilitated by the use of railways, electric and cable-car routes, and also post-office cars, wherein the letters are sorted en route. Pneumatic-tube service is also in operation in our larger cities. The number of railway routes in operation in 1908 were 3,293, with a length of 213,220 miles. The annual rate of expenditure for this service was $44,722,985. In 1908 there were 1,575 lines of railway post offices on railroads, steamboats, and electric cars, operated over a total of 208,481 miles of routes. The expenditures for this service were $17,373,336. The total cost of sending the U. S. mail to foreign countries by sea for the year ending June 30, 1908, was $2,875,912. The international parcel post was established in 1908-9 with New Netherlands, France, Austria, and a number of S. American countries. The weight of parcel-post matter dispatched from the U. S. was 968,513 lb., and the weight received from foreign countries was 584,667 lb. In 1908 there were 61,158 post offices in operation in the U. S. The total postal revenue of the year 1907-8 was $191,478,663, the expenditures $207,528,222. The sales of stamps, stamped envelopes, newspaper wrappers, and post cards amounted to $173,374,712; secondclass postage (pound rate) paid in money, $6,950,506. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 150 postal cards, 1905; Japan, 308,929,111 letters and 663,336,289 postal cards, 1906; Canada, 285,541,000 letters and 29,941,000 postal cards, 1905; Russia, 779,123,208 letters and postcards and 11,838,942 letters with money, 1904; France, 1,144,789,000 ordinary and 61,155,000 registered letters and 85,346,000 postal cards, 1904; Mexico, 184,000,000 letters, postcards, and packets were carried, 1905. Post Office Depart'ment, in the U. S., a department of state provided by congressional act of 1794. The head of the postal service is the Postmaster General, who has been a Cabinet minister since 1829. Under him are four Assistant Postmasters General (appointed by the President), of whom the first is the general executive, in charge also of the Dead-letter Office, the free-delivery service, and the money-order system; the second has charge of the transportation of all mail matter; the third is the bookkeeper of the department and attends to the issuing of stamps and the classification of the mail matter; and the fourth manages post-office inspections, receives the bonds of postmasters, appoints fourth-class postmasters, etc. Post-mor'tem Examina'tion, or Au'topsy, examination of the body to determine the cause and manner of death. In cases of poisoning the nature of the poison and possibly the manner of its administration may be determined; in death from violence the examination will often reveal the nature of the weapon used in the infliction of the wounds and the relative positions of the victim and assailant at the it remains behind, principally as the carbonate. Potassium occurs, further, in the form of a salt of tartaric acid in grape juice. The compounds of potassium include potassium bromide and potassium iodide, used in medicine and photography; hydroxide or hydrate, commonly called caustic potash, made by treating the carbonate in solution with lime; sulphides, formed by melting together time. Such examinations are also made in orpotassium carbonate and sulphur; acid potasder to study the lesions which are produced insium tartrate, cream of tartar; potassium carvarious organs as the result of disease. The incisions are made in such a manner that the least possible trace of them is visible when the body is again dressed. Post-ter'tiary Pe'riod. See PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. Pot'ash. See POTASSIUM. Potas'sæ Bitar'tras. See CREAM OF TARTAR. Potas'sium, metallic element discovered by Davy, 1807, while experimenting on the action of a powerful electric current on molten caustic potash (potassium hydroxide, potassic hydrate). Potash is potassium carbonate, a constituent of wood ashes, from which caustic potash is obtained. The metal can be made by distilling at a white heat an intimate mixture of potassium carbonate and charcoal, and this method is now used on a large scale. Potassium has a bright metallic luster on its freshly cut surfaces, but this quickly tarnishes on account of the ease with which moisture acts upon it. The metal is soft, and lighter than water. When thrown upon water the latter is decomposed, the products of the action being potassium hydroxide (KOH) and hydro gen. The heat evolved is sufficient to set the hydrogen on fire, and at the same time a little of the potassium is burned, so that the flame has the characteristic violet color of potassium bonate, principal soluble ingredient of wood ashes; potassium silicate, prepared on a large scale by melting together quartz powder and purified potash; and potassium ferrocyanide, or yellow prussiate of potash, obtained by heating refuse animal matter with impure potassium carbonate and scrap iron, used in making Prussian blue. Pota'to, most widely cultivated and valuable of esculent tubers; the Solanum tuberosum of the nightshade family, and allied to the tobacco, belladonna, and tomato plants; native of the elevated tropical valleys of Chile, Peru, and Mexico; carried to Spain from Peru early in the sixteenth century; introduced into Virginia from Florida by Spanish explorers, and into Great Britain from Virginia by Sir John Hawkins, 1565. The potato is a perennial plant, with smooth, herbaceous stems, from 1 to 3 ft. in height, with pinnate leaves, flowers varying in breadth from 1 to 2 in., and in color from bluish white to purple, and consisting of a wheel-shaped corolla, more or less veined, bearing a globular, purplish fruit or seed ball of the size of a gooseberry, and an herbage characterized by a narcotic smell, and practically useless, though it may be eaten by cattle and, like spinach, by man. One of the leading qualities of the potato is an extraordinary productiveness, far exceeding that of any esculent with which it can |