PAIXHANS

brary and Museum, with observatory and pic-| ture gallery, and the Coats Memorial Baptist Church. Its celebrated manufacture of fine shawls was introduced abt. 1800. Among its other productions are silk gauze, muslins, plaids, carpets, leather, soap, and liquors. There are shipbuilding yards on the Cart. The town owes its existence to a priory founded abt. 1160. Pop. (1908) 90,305.

Paixhans (pa-zän'), Henri Joseph, 17831854; French inventor; b. Metz; served in the artillery; became a general of division; was a deputy, 1830-48; and was connected with the ministry of war in various capacities. The guns and projectiles which bear his name were first employed in France, 1824. His chief work Nouvelle force maritime."

is

Pak'tong, name of Chinese alloy resembling German silver in appearance; commercially known as packfong; is composed of arsenic and copper fused at a low temperature, two parts of arsenic to five of copper.

;

Paladilhe (pä-lä-dēy'), Émile, 1844French composer; b. Montpellier; entered the · Paris Conservatory when nine years of age; gained first prize, 1857, and Prix de Rome, 1860; won considerable fame as a composer of operas, the most important of which is his grand opera "Patrie," text from Sardou's drama, produced at the Opera, Paris, December 20, 1886. He has also composed a symphony,

masses, and much music for vocal and instrumental solos.

Palacky (pä-läts'kē), Frantisek, 1798-1876; Bohemian historian; b. Moravia. In 1829 he became national historiographer, and began his History of Bohemia," on which his fame chiefly rests, though he published other important works. In the Austrian Upper House and in the Provincial Diet of Bohemia he was for years the leader of the Czech National Party.

Palæog'raphy. See PALEOGRAPHY.

Palæol'ogus, name of a Byzantine family which occupied the throne of Constantinople from 1261 to 1453, the year in which that city was taken by the Turks. The first emperor of the family was Michael VIII, who had made himself Emperor of Nicea by deposing his ward, John Lascaris, and, with the aid of the Genoese navy, obtained possession of Constantinople, and founded the dynasty. He was successful in many enterprises, endeavored to heal the schism in the Church, and died, 1282. The last emperor, Constantine XIII, was killed while fighting in defense of his capital. A branch of the family ruled the principality of Montferrat, Italy, 1305-1533, and another reigned in the Morea, 1380-1460. The family is supposed to have become extinct with Theodore Palæologus, who died in England, 1693.

PALATE

and Siskiyou cos., Cal. The following tribal divisions are recognized: Achomawi, Atuamih, Chumawa, Estakewach, Hantewa, Humawhi, Ilmawi, Pakamalli (?). Very few of these Indians survive.

Palame'des, legendary Greek hero, son of Nauplius and Clymene; served in the expedition against Troy, and for a time was commander in chief in place of Agamemnon, whose measures he opposed. He is variously said to have been drowned, and to have been executed on false evidence of treason contrived by Ulysses; is not mentioned by Homer, but was made the subject of tragedies by Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

Palanquin (păl-ăn-ken'), portable litter for conveying travelers. Palanquins are employed extensively in India, China, and other Asiatic countries." The Japanese norimono and kago are but forms of the palanquin. The Indian palanquin has a waterproof cover, with Venetian shutters at the sides. The traveler is carried in a recumbent posture. The palanquin is borne by four men, who are relieved at regular intervals by others.

Pal'atals, sounds formed between the body of the tongue and the hard palate; distinguished from the velars or gutturals, formed palate. Palatal explosives are k (as in kiss, between the back of the tongue and the soft not as in cot) and g (as in get, not as in got). Palatal spirants are ch (as in German ich) and the voiced variety of the same (as in German lege, folge, regnen). The palatal semivowel y, in English yet, young, onion, use, approaches near to the character of a voiced palatal spirant, and is more accurately classified as such. The palatal vowels are the various forms of e (as in ten, bat, bait) and of i (as it, bit, beet).

Pal'ate, bony and muscular partition which separates the mouth in vertebrate animals from the anterior and posterior nasal cavities; forms the roof of the mouth; and consists of the horizontal portion of the superior maxillary bones in front and of the palate bones behind; these form an arch, bounded in front and on the sides by the upper teeth and their sockets, covered by mucous membrane, and giving attachment posteriorly to the velum palati or soft palate. The width, contractions, elevations, extent, and perforation by larger or smaller incisive or other openings, are valuable characters in estimating the rank of the various subdivisions of vertebrates, those being the highest in which this part is broadest, uniform, and least pierced by foramina, making a complete partition as in man; the changes in the palate bones are connected with corresponding modifications in the sphenoid, and consequently with the whole anatomy of the skull. The soft palate is a movable muscular partition, covered by mucous membrane; its free edge floats above the base of the tongue, having in its center a conical appendage, the uvula, and on its sides the socalled palatine arches," of which there are two on each side, the anterior and the poste

PALATINATE, THE

Palat'inate, The (in German, PFALZ), formerly a political division and independent state of Germany, consisted of two separate territories, called the Upper Palatinate, now forming the N. part of the Kingdom of Bavaria, and the Lower Palatinate, on both sides of the Rhine, and now forming the S. part of Rhenish Prussia, the N. part of the grand duchy of Baden, and the province of Bavaria, called Rhenish Bavaria. From the eleventh century these two territories formed an hereditary monarchy, their ruler being one of the electors of the German empire; but, 1648, by the Treaty of Westphalia, the Upper Palatinate fell to Bavaria while the Lower Palatinate continued a possession of the original dynasty. In 1777 the male line of Bavaria having become extinct, the two Palatinates were reunited, but at the Peace of Lunéville, 1801, the Lower Palatinate was divided between Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, France, LeiningenDachsburg, and Nassau, and the only alteration which the Congress of Vienna made in this arrangement consisted in transferring to Germany that part of the Palatinate which France had occupied, Bavaria receiving the larger part and Hesse-Darmstadt and Prussia obtaining the rest.

Palatine, under the old Hungarian constitution, the title of the royal lieutenant. The Archduke Stephen, cousin of Emperor Ferdinand, was the last palatine, officiating at the beginning of the Revolution of 1848. The term was also used as a title of the governors of provinces of independent Poland. Under the Merovingians the counts palatine were attached to the court and palace of the sovereign, and aided him in his judicial duties, but from the time of Charlemagne this title was given to powerful feudal lords who were placed in charge of remote or turbulent provinces, where they maintained a court and palace in the sovereign's name. This was the origin of the counties palatine.

Palatine Hill, one of the most important of the seven hills of ancient Rome; site of Roma Quadrata, the original city; is S. of the Capitoline Hill and SW. of the Forum; was the official abode of the emperors, and in mediæval times of the highest dignitaries, but has since then fallen into decay.

Pale, I'rish. See ENGLISH PALE.

Palembang (pä-lēm-bäng'), capital of Dutch residency of same name; on E. coast of Sumatra; chief trade center of island; on Moesi River, which forms a fine harbor. City has abt. 50,000 inhabitants and carries on an active trade.

66

PALERMO

Paleontology, science which treats of the evidences of organic life on the earth during the past geological periods. These evidences consist in the remains of plants and animals preserved in the rocky strata or on their surfaces, and in trails, footprints, burrows, and organic material. From remote times men had observed these objects in the rocky strata, far above the level of the ocean. It was only in the beginning of the sixteenth century, when Christian nations turned their attention to geological phenomena, that fanciful opinions were promulgated, attributing these forms to sports of nature," lusus naturæ, "the plastic force of nature," which effected these resemblances; or that, dating from the first creation, they were produced at the time of the formation of crystals or of the mountains themselves. As a branch of science distinct from zoology and botany, paleontology owes its origin to the recognition of fossils as the remains of extinct organisms. Cuvier is credited with having first announced the opinion that organisms distinct from the present inhabitants have lived upon the earth. This statement was founded on the study of the . bones of the Siberian mammoth and of the Elephas americanus, which were shown to be specifically different from those of the living Asiatic elephant.

Paleontolgy has not only enlarged the number of species and genera, etc., of animals and plants, but it has enlarged the conception of organisms. Paleontology primarily considers organisms as having a history, while zoology and botany are primarily concerned with the structure and classification of organisms; thus the former science finds its legitimate field of investigation to be the history of organisms. The mere description of the fossil remains of organisms and their systematic classification is a part of zoology and botany, technically described described as paleozoology and paleobotany, while paleontology proper is wider in its scope, and treats of the history of organisms, vegetable and animal. As botany and zoology treat of the characters expressed in the life of the individuals, so paleontology treats of the life of the races.

Paleozoic E'ra, one of the greater divisions of geologic time; preceded by the Proterozoic era and followed by the Mesozoic and Cenozoic; includes the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods. See GEOLOGY.

PALES

Of

in the city, and will hold 12,000 persons. The royal palace is in part the work of the Arabs, for whom it served as a fortified castle. other buildings there is the university (founded 1447), with the town library and the national library. The environs of Palermo abound in objects of interest, among them, the great Cathedra! of Monreale and Monte Pellegrino, in which is the grotto of Santa Rosalia, the patroness of the city. There are manufactures of gloves, essences, and machinery; vessels annually entering the port about 3,500, with a tonnage of 1,200,000; exports, fruits, wines, silks, gloves, etc. Palermo is first known in history as a Carthaginian dependency. During the Punic wars it fell into the hands of the Romans and became a great naval station. In the fifth century A.D. it was taken by the Vandals, and was ceded by them to the Goths, who were driven out by Belisarius. In 830 it was conquered by the Saracens, who made it the capital of their Sicilian dominions. In 1071 the Normans, under Count Roger, took Palermo, and it continued the capital of the Sicilian kingdom through the Norman and Suabian dynasties. Charles of Anjou removed his court to Naples, 1269, since which time Palermo has never been a permanent royal residence. The landing of Garibaldi at Marsala, 1860, caused an uprising here, which put to flight 30,000 Bourbon troops, backed by a strong fleet; and by an enthusiastic plébiscite the city became a part of the new Kingdom of Italy. Pop. (1907) 309,694.

Pa'les, in Roman mythology, a divinity of flocks and shepherds, corresponding in some respects to the Greek Pan; conceived of sometimes as male and sometimes as female, although the rites of the festival Palilia considered Pales only as female. This festival was celebrated, April 21st, and was considered the birthday of Rome.

Pal'estine, country of W. Asia, now forming part of the Turkish Empire, between lat. 30° 40' and 33° 15′ N., and lon. 33° 45' and 36° 30' E., bounded N. by the Lebanon Mountains, E. and S. by the desert which separates it from Arabia and Egypt, and W. by the Mediterranean; length N. and S. about 200 m., average breadth 60 m.; area, 12,000 sq. m.; pop. est. at abt. 400,000, of whom abt. 45,000 are Jews. The remnant of the Samaritans at Naples numbers only 150. The bulk of the inhabitants are a mixed race, descendants of the ancient Syrians and their Arab conquerors. The Mohammedans are the dominant and most numerous sect. The Christians are almost entirely of Syrian race. They belong mostly to the Greek Church, of which there is a patriarch at Jerusalem. The name Palestine was never applied by the ancient Hebrews to anything more than the S. portion of the coast region, Philistia; and when it occurs in the English translation of the Bible it has this sense. The earlier Greek usage was the same; but under the Romans it became the general name for the whole country of the Jews. The oldest name was the Land of Canaan, or sometimes simply Canaan, lowland, by which was

PALESTINE

meant, however, only the country W. of the Jordan, which is all that was promised to Abraham. Other Scripture names are Judea, the Land of Israel, the Land of Promise, and the Holy Land. The last name has for several centuries been more current than any other.

Modern Palestine is included in the vilayet of Syria, and contains the two subpashalics of Acre and Jerusalem. It is a "land of hills and valleys." Jaffa is now the only port, and this only allows landing by boats under favorable circumstances. From the coast the land rises rapidly to a mountainous height in the center, and declines on the other side to the low level of the desert, being cleft through the center N. and S. by the deep valley of the Jordan. The S. portion of the coast level is termed in the Scriptures the plain or low country, and the W. part of it was the abode of the Philistines. This plain is very fertile, and is covered with corn fields. N. of it is a less level and fertile plain, the Sharon of the Scriptures. Beyond Cæsarea the plain narrows until it is terminated by Mt. Carmel, N. of which lies the plain of Acre, the S. portion of ancient Phoenicia.

At the S. extremity of the Anti-Libanus, the E. range of Lebanon, rises the conical snowclad peak of Hermon (about 10,000 ft. high), overlooking all Palestine. S. of Hermon the Anti-Libanus sinks into the hills of Galilee, and S. of these is the plain of Esdraelon, the great battle field of Jewish history. On its NE. border stands Mt. Tabor. S. of the plain of Esdraelon stretches an unbroken tract of 3,000 ft. The N. part of this region comprised mountains, attaining in the N. an elevation of

Samaria, and the S. Judea. The hills of Judea are masses of barren rock, with a general height above the sea of 2,000 or 3,000 ft. On their E. face they descend abruptly to the valley of the Jordan, their general slope being furrowed by steep and rugged gorges. The W. slope is more gradual and gentle, but still difficult of passage, and the central heights of Palestine are a series of natural fastnesses of great strength. The Jordan is the only important river of Palestine. The principal lakes are the Dead Sea in the S. and the Lake of Gennesaret in the N. In many parts of the country, and especially in the valley of the Jordan and the vicinity of the Dead Sea, there are indications of volcanic origin, and earthquakes are often felt.

In the earliest times in which Palestine or Canaan becomes known to us, it was divided among various tribes, whom the Jews called collectively Canaanites. After the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites under Moses and Joshua, the land was distributed among the tribes. In the time of Christ Palestine was subject to the Romans, and the country W. of the Jordan was divided, beginning at the N., into the provinces of Galilee, Samaria, and Judea. On the other side of the Jordan the country was called Peræa, and was divided into the districts of Peræa proper, Gilead, Decapolis, Gaulonitis, Batanæa, Auramitis (with Ituræa), Trachonitis, and Abilene. The country remained subject to the Roman and Byzantine emperors for more than six centuries

PALESTRINA

after Christ. The Jews, after frequent rebellions, in one of which 70 A.D., Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus, were mostly driven from the country and scattered as slaves or exiles over the world. In 614 the Persians under Chosroes II captured Jerusalem. It was regained by Heraclius, but was conquered by the Mohammedan Arabs, 637. The crusades form a memorable period in the history of Palestine. In 1517 the Turks took the country from the Sultan of Egypt. Much attention has been given in recent times to the careful exploration of Palestine, with important results in the identification of places named in Scrip

ture.

Palestrina (pä-lès-trē'nä), Giovanni Pietro Aloisio da, 1524-94; Italian composer; b. near Rome; made papal chapelmaster by Julius III, being the first who received that title. In 1555 Paul IV dismissed him for marrying; but he afterwards held the same post in the churches of St. John Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore, and after 1571 in St. Peter's. Palestrina, being called on by the Council of Trent to compose a work in a more simple and devotional style than that of the prevailing music, produced his celebrated "Mass of Pope Marcellus." His music, chiefly masses, psalms, motets, and madrigals, is grave and learned.

Palestrina (ancient, Præneste), town in province of Rome, Italy; on a spur of the Apennines, 1,600 ft. above the sea; 18 m. NE. of Albano. The Church of Santa Rosalia is richly adorned with marbles and alabaster. The Palazzo Barberini occupies a part of the site of the vast old Temple of Fortune. Præneste was a member of the Latin League till, 499 B.C., it joined Rome; took part, however, in the Latin war against Rome. In 82 B.C. Sulla, for harboring the younger Marius, put to death more than 12,000 of its citizens. On the fall of the W. Empire it became a part of the papal dominions; but the Colonna family afterwards claimed it as their fief. In 1297 Boniface VIII utterly destroyed the town, with the exception of the cathedral. From this time the Colonna never ceased to struggle with the popes for its possession till 1630, when it passed by sale to the Barberini. Pop. (1901) 6,027.

Palgrave, William Gifford, 1826-88; English author; b. Westminster; son of Sir Francis; was an officer of the native infantry in Bombay, 1847-53; entered the Roman Catholic priesthood; ; missionary in India, Palestine, and Syria; 1862, commissioned by Napoleon III, made a journey through the Wahabite kingdoms of central Arabia, disguised as a physician; 1864 severed his connection with the Jesuit order, and in 1865 was sent to Abyssinia by the British Govt. to negotiate with King Theodore for the release of English prisoners. Thereafter he held various consular ports, and after 1884 was minister to Uruguay. His publications include "Central and Eastern Arabia," "Essays on Eastern Questions," "Dutch Guiana," and "Alkamah's Cave, a Story of Nejd."

Pali (pä'lē), language in which the Buddhist scriptures are written; is one of the Prakrit dialects into which the old spoken Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the Vedas, was broken during the centuries from 1000-600 B.C. while the Sanskrit-speaking Aryan tribes were gradually forcing their way from the Punjab down into the Ganges valley. It is the only one of the spoken dialects of which we have full records, and it bears the same relation to Vedic Sanskrit that Italian does to Latin. Pali literature consists of the Buddhist sacred texts and of other works by Buddhist authors-histories, poems, legends, commentaries, books on ethics, and controversial volumes on the rules of the Buddhist order. Its extent is constantly being increased, for the Pali language has spread to the Buddhists in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam, and is still used by authors who wish to be read beyond their native land.

forts of Taku, and, marching to Pekin, enforced the conditions of peace submitted by the allied powers. In 1870 succeeded M. Ollivier as premier and acted as Minister of War.

Pal'impsest, parchment which has been written on twice or oftener, the prior writing having been erased and the surface prepared for the new by rubbing. After the conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, W. Europe was cut off from the supply of papyrus, and the supply of parchment being limited, recourse was had to the erasure of ancient manuscripts. This practice, which prevailed in the West from the seventh or eighth century throughout the dark ages, and in the East, which was not deprived