1795 and which became the Annales des Mines in 1816. In Germany the Taschenbuch fuer die gesammte Mineralogie mit Hinsicht auf die neuesten Endeckungen was established in 1806, which subsequently was superseded by the Zeitschrift fuer Mineralogie. This journal in turn gave way to the Jahrbuch fuer Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie, und Petrefaktenkunde in 1830, which with but slight modifications in the title has continued down to the present day and is recognized as a most powerful influence in the development of the early sciences, especially in Europe.

The first comprehensive work on mineralogy in America was Parker Cleaveland's "Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology," a volume of 668 pages with numerous crystal drawings and a colored geological map of the eastern portion of the United States, which appeared in 1816. In writing this text it obviously was necessary for Cleaveland, who was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and lecturer on chemistry and mineralogy in Bowdoin College, to which position he had been appointed in 1805, to draw freely upon European writers, especially English, French and German. The incorporation of American localities was an arduous task, for Cleaveland indicates that Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, a paper by S. Godon in the Memoirs of the American Academy, and another by Dr. Adam Seybert, of Philadelphia, in the Medical Museum were almost the only printed authorities which he employed.

In his introduction, Cleaveland stresses the importance of mineralogy in the following

manner:

It may also be remarked that several arts and manufactures depend upon mineralogy for their existence; and that improvements and discoveries in the latter can not fail of extending their beneficial efforts to the aforementioned employments. In fine the study of mineralogy, whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth, to improve and multiply arts and manufactures and thus promote the public good; or as affording a pleasant subject for scientific research, recommends itself to the attention of the citizen and scholar.

Also,

But whatever progress may hitherto have been made in mineralogical pursuits, every new advance has opened a wider and more interesting prospect. The science is still in its infancy, and in many of its paths can only proceed with a faltering and uncertain step.

In reviewing this pioneer text, Professor Silliman in 1818 said:

In our opinion, this work does honor to our country and will greatly promote the knowledge of mineralogy and geology, besides aiding in the great work of disseminating a taste for science generally. . . . The method of execution is masterly. Discrimination, perspicuity, judicious selection of characters and facts, a style chaste, manly, and comprehensive, are among the attributes of Professor Cleaveland's performance. . . . In our opinion, Professor Cleaveland's work ought to be introduced in all our schools of mineralogy and ought to be the travelling companion of every American mineralogist.

The text was received with great favor, a second edition in two volumes being issued in 1822. Although later a third edition became necessary, it was never prepared on account of the failing health of the author.

In 1825 Samuel Robinson published an elaborate list of American mineral localities, entitled "A catalogue of American minerals with their localities." The following year Emmon's "Manual of Mineralogy and Geology was issued. This was a text of 230 pages. The part dealing with mineralogy was the second general treatise on mineralogy published in America. Little attention was given to crystallography. Descriptive mineralogy was emphasized and 297 minerals were described.

The next work on mineralogy by an American was the first part of the "Treatise on Mineralogy," published in 1832, by Professor C. U. Shepard, who at that time was an assistant to Professor Silliman at Yale University. It was based on the work of Mohs and was a small volume of 256 pages. This was followed in 1835 by Part Two consisting of two volumes of 630 pages. A second edition was published in 1844.

The year 1837 is memorable in the annals of American mineralogy on account of the publication in that year of Dana's "System of Mineralogy." While this work, consisting of 580 pages, was based to a considerable extent on the writings of European mineralogists, notably Haüy, Mohs, and Naumann, it was not devoid of originality. This is especially true of the section on mathematical crystallography and of the elaborate classification of minerals based upon the systems in use in botany and zoology. As it is well known, this system of classification gave way in the fourth edition, in 1854, to a chemical classification which has continued in quite general use down to the present time. Dana's "System of Mineralogy" was received with great favor, and the first edition was succeeded by others as follows: second in 1844, third in 1850, fourth in 1854, and fifth in 1868. The last edition, which is the sixth by E. S. Dana in 1892, with its various appendixes, is the standard reference work the world over on descriptive mineralogy.

As already indicated, in 1810 Bruce founded The American Mineralogical Journal which was discontinued after the publication of but one volume. Although but short-lived, it had demonstrated the great need of a strictly scientific journal. Consequently in 1817 Colonel George Gibbs, one of the most enthusiastic devotees of mineralogy and the possessor of perhaps the largest and most notable mineral collection in America at that time, which was purchased by Yale University in 1825, suggested to Professor Benjamin Silliman that a general scientific journal be established. This led to the founding of the American Journal of Science in 1818 under the editorship of Silliman. While its scope was intended "to embrace the circle of the physical sciences and their application to the arts, and to every useful purpose," the American Journal of Science has from the beginning published most of the important contributions on mineralogical subjects by American writers.

The decade 1810 to 1820 is an extremely important one to us, for during that period there were founded the American Mineralog

ical Journal and the American Journal of Science. There was also published Cleaveland's Mineralogy. However, it yet remains to call attention to the fact that in 1819 there was organized at Yale College the American Geological Society. Many of the members of this society can be characterized as mineralogists, and mention may be made in this connection of Gibbs, Silliman, Cleaveland and Godon. This organization continued until 1828, when it went out of existDuring this period, however, it did much to stimulate American workers in geology and mineralogy.

ence.

This organization was followed in 1840 by the Association of American Geologists, which held its first meeting in Philadelphia on April 2, 1840. Meetings were held annually and in 1843 the Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists appeared. However, in 1847 this organization became the American Association for the Advancement of Science. It is thus seen that the American Association with which practically all the important scientific societies are now affiliated, was according to Alexander Winchell "in its incipiency a body of geologists, and its first constitution was prepared by geologists assembled in Boston, in 1847."

In the development of American higher education in the period prior to 1850, the fact must not be overlooked that no college or university considered itself adequately equipped unless it possessed a representative collection of minerals. Indeed in the case of some institutions mineral collections, or cabinets as they were commonly called, were usually among the first purchases authorized by the governing bodies of the institutions. Such was, for example, the case at the University of Michigan, which was founded on March 18, 1837, but was not formally opened for instruction until 1841. In the meantime, however, the well-selected mineral collection of Baron L. Lederer, of New York City, consisting of 2,600 specimens, mostly from foreign localities, was purchased. This admirable collection was moreover quickly augmented, so that when the university opened

its doors to students a collection of approximately 5,000 entries was available.

It will also be recalled that in 1807 Yale University acquired the Perkins collection, and that in 1825 the Gibbs collection also became the property of that institution. In discussing the growth of mineralogy in this country from 1818 to 1918, Ford says,

There is no doubt but that the presence at this early date of this large and unusual mineral collection had a great influence upon the development of mineralogical science at Yale and in the country at large.

From the foregoing discussion it is quite obvious that mineralogy played a very important rôle in the development of higher education during the first half of the nineteenth century. It was one of the first sciences to find a place in the curricula of our colleges and universities. Its devotees founded the first general scientific journals, one of which has continued uninterruptedly up to the present time and is held in high esteem the world over. Mineralogists were also among the first to recognize the need and value of national organizations, and were important factors in the founding of our most general scientific society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

THE PERIOD OF EXPANSION, 1850-1900 The second half of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid development in higher education. Colleges and universities sprang up all over the United States in quick succession, especially in the mid and far west. It was also a period in which mineralogy and geology were applied practically on a very .large scale by the federal and state surveys. The demand for competent geologists became very great, so that more emphasis was now placed upon geology than upon mineralogy by the institutions of higher learning. However, during the last two decades of the century the need of specialization became imperative and the number of scientifically trained mineralogists increased materially. It was during this period also that petrography

and economic geology began to be recognized as independent disciplines.

Not only did the expansion of our surveys and the development of our vast mineral resources, but also the fostering of graduate work by our older and larger universities, demand adequately trained specialists. It will be recalled that during the eighties and early nineties comparatively large numbers of Americans went to Europe and especially to Germany, to acquire the latest methods in petrography and mineralogy.

After the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists in 1847 voted to resolve that organization into the American Association for the Advancement of Science, geology participated along with other sciences in the activities of the association, and with geography formed what is known as Section E. Although at first the American Association served the interests of the geologists rather satisfactorily, nevertheless with the rapid growth of the Association the opportunities for meetings of a strictly scientific character became fewer and the need of a separate organization began to be felt. According to Alexander Winchell an independent organization was first openly agitated by the geologists assembled at the meeting of the American Association at Cincinnati in 1881. Although a committee was appointed, which canvassed the situation and reported favorably upon the organization of a separate society and the establishment of a geological magazine, no definite action was taken at the next meeting.

However, this question continued to be considered quite regularly at successive annual meetings of the Association and the publication of the American Geologist was begun in Minneapolis in January, 1888. Again on August 14, 1888, in Cleveland, it was resolved that the formation of an American Geological Society was desirable, and organization plans were made. The first meeting was held in Ithaca on December 27, 1889, with a membership of 137. This organization, officially known as the Geological Society of America, was from the beginning independent and in no way subor

dinate to the American Association. It at once became a great stimulus to American geology and has exerted profound influence upon its development.

! During the last two decades of the nineteenth century the movement to band those interested in minerals together in local organizations manifested itself in several of our large cities. Thus in 1886 the New York Mineralogical Club was organized to "develop and maintain an interest in mineralogy, especially in the minerals and rocks of Manhattan Island, New York City, through collecting and the study and comparison of existing collections." The club has been successful in stimulating interest in mineralogy in New York City and its environs. It has also acquired the Chamberlain collection of minerals which is now deposited in the American Museum of Natural History. Reference must also be made of the fact that in 1892, what is known as the Philadelphia Mineralogical Society, was organized, its purpose being similar to that of the New York Club. From time to time similar organizations had been founded in other localities, all of which have done much to stimulate interest in minerals and especially of those of the region immediately surrounding the location of the society.

In

these institutions were greatly extended. The older departments of instruction were materially expanded by the giving of more advanced and specialized courses, and many new departments were added. Our graduate work developed rapidly. Even before the outbreak of the World War, fewer and fewer students each year found it necessary to go to Europe, as had been the custom during the nineteenth century, for they were now able to secure the instruction desired in our universities. deed, this instruction could be obtained from equally competent men and in more modern laboratories with superior facilities than were to be found abroad. The many contributions by the various governmental bureaus and the establishment of the Geo-physical Laboratory in 1907 gave a great impetus to many branches of science in America. Industrial corporations also recognized the imperative need of adequately equipped laboratories and competent investigators.

During this period, the development of science was indeed marvelous. This statement applies to no science more than it does to mineralogy, by which term we obviously include what may be readily interpreted as the broader field, namely crystallography. Moreover, it was during the war that the preeminent position of the United States in the production of minerals and mineral products, and the vastness of our mineral resources were brought most forcibly to the attention of the general public. Mineralogical methods had to be resorted to in the solving of many special problems imposed by the war, when it became necessary for us to establish our scientific independence. Hence, at present the value of mineralogy is appreciated as never before. On account of its basic value in the training of the geologist, chemist, pharmacist, forester, mining engineer, ceramist, and many other specialized engineers and technologists, mineralogy has become in some of our larger and more progressive institutions what may be designated as a "service" science. Furthermore, it is no longer merely a descriptive science but by virtue of the development of many quantitative methods and especially as the re

sult of the epoch-making discoveries in the field of crystal structure it is now an exact science of fundamental importance.

THE MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA

During the first fifteen years of the existence of the Geological Society of America, comparatively few of its members were primarily interested in mineralogy. However, beginning with the latter half of the first decade of the twentieth century the number of professional mineralogists who became members of the society increased rapidly. This group, however, soon felt that aside from the social aspect of the meetings, the society offered them but little in their own field. Accordingly in January, 1913, Professor Alexander N. Winchell, of the University of Wisconsin, in a letter addressed to those especially interested in mineralogy and petrography, raised the question as to the advisability of organizing a National Association of Mineralogists and Petrographers. The responses were, however, of such a character that a postponement of a separate organization was decided upon. This question, however, would not be downed and it came up annually at the meetings of the Geological Society of America, so that finally at the Albany meeting, December, 1916, a small group consisting of Phillips, Van Horn, Walker, Wherry, Whitlock, and the speaker, decided to launch an active campaign looking toward the formation of the Mineralogical Society of America. A circular letter, signed by the above-named committee, was sent out to those most vitally interested and the replies received clearly indicated the great desirability of such an organization. However, the United States entered the World War in the following April, and consequently plans for organization were held in abeyance. But in the meantime, there had been much correspondence among those taking a lively interest in the organization, and in the fall of 1919 the new society was again actively agitated. A call was issued for an organization meeting to be held at the time of the meeting of the Geological Society of America in Boston, and

on December 30, 1919, a group of 28 mineralogists met in the Mineralogical Museum of Harvard University and organized the society under whose auspices we are meeting to-day, and adopted a provisional constitution.

At this meeting arrangements were made whereby the lists of charter fellows and members would remain open for one year. The question of affiliation with the Geological Society of America was discussed and it is indeed gratifying to know that during the year this has been accomplished. On December 20, the Mineralogical Society had 55 fellows and 126 members. There were in addition 139 subscribers to the American Mineralogist. The most enthusiastic advocates of an independent mineralogical society never expected that such widespread interest could be stimulated during the organization year.

AMERICAN MINERALOGIST

As already indicated the American Mineralogist, which was founded in 1916, became the Journal of the Mineralogical Society under the editorship of one of the founders, Dr. E. T. Wherry. A board of associate editors was appointed by the council to assist Dr. Wherry. During the past year the Journal has appeared regularly, the earlier numbers being considerably larger in size than had previously been the case. However, on account of increased cost of paper and printing it was necessary to reduce the size of the later numbers. It is hoped that as a result of the general readjustment of prices the issuing of monthly numbers of from 24 to 32 pages each may soon become possible. The exact character of the Journal needs to receive the serious consideration of the council, inasmuch as it must serve the widely divergent interests of several groups of the society. We owe much to the energy, skill and unselfish devotion of our editor, who is constantly striving to make the Journal one of which American mineralogists may be justly proud. This, however, will require some little time and I trust that we may all be somewhat patient in this matter.