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APPLICATION OF STEAM TO AGRICULTURE.

Heathcoat, I should feel obliged by the insertion of the accompanying remarks, on the part of myself and those gentleinen who accompanied me to witness this interesting experiment.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

HENRY HANDLEY.

26, Pall-Mall, June 13.

Steam-Ploughs.

The adaptation of inanimate power to the tillage of the soil must evidently have been considered by practical men to present almost insuperable difficulties, or steam would, probably, long since have been substituted for horses and oxen, as the motive power of agricultural implements. Certain light operations of the farm, such as thrashing, churning, chaff-cutting, &c., which could be performed by fixed power, have partially occupied the attention of inechanics, and suitable machinery driven by water, wind, or small steam-engines, has to some extent been advantageously used for such purposes. But the idea of a "steam farm," of a farm to be altogether cultivated by steam, in lieu of animal power, has hitherto been treated as visionary and absurd, except by a few individuals, and one or two agricultural societies, who have enforced, in their publications, the practicability and importance of applying steam to effect the more laborious operations of agriculture.

This desideratum is at length accomplished. Mr. Heathcoat, M.P. for Tiverton, the ingenious and well-known inventor of the lace machinery, has the merit of having conceived and planned this additional and remarkable contribution to science, and to the wealth of his country. The invention, after years of costly experiment, has been matured and perfected through the enterprising liberality of Mr. Heathcoat, assisted by the mechanical ingenuity and perseverance of Mr. Josiah Parkes, civil engineer, whom he selected to carry his designs into effect. The first machine has been constructed expressly for the eultivation of bogs, and has, for some months, been practically and successfully worked in Lancashire, on Red Moss, near Boltonle-Moors.

During the Whitsuntide recess of Parliament, a numerous assemblage of gen

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tlemen from different parts of the country attended to witness an exhibition of this novel and interesting invention; amongst whom were Mr. M. L. Chapman, M.P., Mr. T. Chapman, Mr. H. Handley, M.P., Mr. J. Featherstone, of Griffinstown. house, Westmeath (an enterprising and successful bog-reclaimer), Mr. F. Brown, of Welbourn, Lincolnshire, Mr. James Smith, of Deanston, near Stirling (well known to the mechanical world by his ingenious inventions, applied both to agriculture and manufactures), Mr. B. Hick and Mr. P. Rothwell, engineers, with other experienced judges of mechanical contrivances. These gentlemen were unanimous in pronouncing the invention to be the germ of great improvements in the science and practice of agriculture, as well as eminently fitted for the particular purpose to which it has, in the first instance, been applied. Two ploughs of different construction were put in action, to the admiration of the spectators; particularly the one last invented, which is double-acting, or made with two shares in the same plane, so that it returns at the end of a "bout," taking a new furrow, without loss of time. The perfect mechanism of this ploughthe action of the working coulters and under-cutting knives, which divide every opposing fibre of the moss-the breadth and depth of the furrow turned overthe application of a new and admirable means of traction, instead of chains or ropes-together with the facility with which the machine is managed, and the power applied to the plough, especially interested and surprised all present. The speed at which the plough travelled was 2 miles per hour, turning furrows 18 inches broad by 9 inches in depth, and completely reversing the surface. Each furrow of 220 yards in length was performed in somewhat less than three minutes, so that in a working day of twelve hours, this single machine would with two ploughs turn over ten acres of bog land!

The machine which bears the steam-. engines is itself locomotive; but as the ploughs are moved at right angles to its line of progress, not dragged after it, the machine has to advance only the width of a furrow, viz. eighteen inches, whilst the ploughs have travelled a quarter of a mile; in other wo ds, the machine has to be moved only eleven yards, in the

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THE SILICA SOAP AND WASHING WITH PIPE-CLAY.

time that the ploughs have travelled five-and-a-half miles, and turned over a statute acre of land. This is, in truth, the prime distinguishing feature of the invention; it is the contrivance on which the genius of its author is more particu arly stamped, and which seems to be ssential to the economical application of steam to husbandry; for it is evident, that were it requisite to impel the machine with a velocity equal to that of the ploughs, by dragging them with it, a great proportion of the power of the engines would be uselessly expended.

Another valuable property appertaining to the machine, and which conduces greatly to its economy as a bog cultivator is, that it requires no previous outlay in the formation of roads, no preparation of any kind further than a drain on each side of it. That a locomotive machine of such great dimensions and power could be so constructed as to travel on mere raw bog, was an excellence the more appreclated as it was unexpected by those persons who are conversant with the soft, unstable nature of bog. The Irish gentlemen present also pronounced Red Moss to be a fair specimen of the great mass of the flat, red, fibrous bogs of Ireland, and that neither the machine nor the ploughs would have any difficulties to encounter in that country which had not been already overcome on Red Moss, the field of experiment. The engines are capable of working up to fifty horses power, but the operations subsequent to ploughing will require a small force compared with that necessary for breaking up the surface of the bogs, to the depth and at the speed effected by these ploughs. The power consumed by each plough is estimated at about twelve horses, and the weight of the sod operated upon by the plough, from point to heel, is not less than three hundred pounds. The boiler is of unusually large dimensions for locomotive engines, being suited to the use of peat as fuel, so that the culture of a bog will be effected by the produce of its drains. At Red Moss, however, coals are so cheap, being found contiguous to and even under it, that they are used in preference to turf. Eight men are required for the management of the machine and the two ploughs, or at the rate, nearly, of one man per acre; but it must be understood that this number of men will only be required for the first heavy

process, and has no relation to any subsequent operations in the cultivation of bugs, nor to the application of the invention to the culture of hard land.

After passing a sufficient time on the Moss to witness the exhibition of the ploughs, and the various other functions and properties of the machine, the party expressed to Mr. Heathcoat the extreme pleasure they had received, and their earnest hope that he would extend the sphere of his exertions by applying the invention to the culture of stiff clay soils; and more especially to carry into effect those important operations of sub-soil ploughing and improved drainage recently introduced to the agricultural world by Mr. Smith, of Deanston. To effect these processes, great power is essential, and it was evident that Mr. Heathcoat's invention was equally well adapted to them, and would be attended with results no less important than those which will arise from its application to the reclamation and culture of bogs.Morning Chronicle.

THE SILICA SOAP, AND WASHING WITH
PIPE-CLAY.

Sir, I have just observed in your Magazine for last month an article from Dundee, relative to the use of pipe-clay as an auxiliary to soap. In corroboration of the facts stated therein, I beg leave to say, that I and some of my friends have for many years been in the habit of using a silicious clay or species of soapstone, both in solution with water and in combination with soap, and have found it to possess such valuable detergent qualities, as to effect a considerable saving in that article.

I am not aware whether pipe-clay, or a clay such as mine, be the better material; the former you know is highly aluminous, while the principal constituent of that on my land is silex, and differing, I should think, very little, if at all, from the pulp of flint; for the use of which, in the manufacture of soap, you noticed in a late Number that a patent had been obtained.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,
I. S.

Dublin, June 20, 1836.

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Sir,-Inkstands upon the principle of the bird's water-fountain have long been in use, particularly as recipients for red ink. Although this form of inkstand possesses many advantages, still it is liable to several objections; from the particular conformation of the orifice, a very shallow body of ink is contained in the well: being entirely open, it is also constantly covered with a film of dust, which, as it subsides to the bottom, is continually being taken up by the pen, the remaining portion forming a dirty incrustation about the trough. From the shallowness of the well, fine pointed pens are also frequently injured by striking against the glass at the bottom in hasty dipping.

An improvement in this form of inkstand has recently been introduced by Mr. Henry Stephens, in which he has retained all the advantages of the old fountain-inks, and obviated the objections to which they have been liable.

A sketch of one of Mr. Stephens' improved fountain-inks accompanies this paper, by which it will be seen, that the aperture for the pen is a perpendicular, and not a horizontal orifice, and instead of dipping into a shallow well, the pen is inserted obliquely into the body of the ink.

This inkstand was invented by Mr. Stephens for his new writing fluid, for which it is particularly adapted. This valuable substitute for ink possesses characters long held to be desirable by the writing world.

The numerous defects existing in the common writing inks, have been the subject of continual complaint from time immemorial, but which, since the genera

introduction of steel pens, have been felt so much, that many persons who would prefer metal pens, from the uniformity which they give to the text, have been compelled to abandon them from the difficulty they find in their use, owing to the decomposition and want of fluidity in the inks. Mr. Stephens, struck with the importance of the subject, turned his attention to the investigation of the matter, and after a great number of experiments continued for a long period of time, he has succeeded in producing one of the best inks ever submitted to the public. Mr. Stephens' writing fluid is remarkable for the ease with which it flows from and follows every stroke of the pen, for its bright and distinct blue colour when first written with, and the superior blackness which it afterwards invariably acquires.

Some doubts having arisen, or rather, insinuations having been industriously circulated, as to the durability of this ink, Mr. Stephens very justly observes-"The permanence of a colour depends very much upon the weakness or strength of the affinity of its combinations. If to any compound you introduce substances having a stronger affinity to either of the combined matters than the one with which it is united, you disturb the composition and alter its character. If any of the materials are easily affected by surrounding influences, combining with, or being attracted by them, the composition is more or less liable to change. To illustrate the force of the above statements, I need only advert to the composition of common ink, which is a combination of gallic acid with sulphate of iron. Interpose any substance which subtracts or

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STEPHENS' IMPROVED FOUNTAIN INKS.

displaces either of the above substances, and you impair or weaken the colour. Gallate of iron is a coloured or black compound; oxalate of iron is compara tively colourless. Oxalic acid having a stronger affinity for the iron than the gallic acid, displaces the latter, and changes the composition from a black to a colourless impression, and effaces the record. Many other influences attack the vegetable principle, subtracting and dissipating it, leaving the remains brown oxide of iron: such is the action of the sun, the slow operation of time, marine influences, and the operation of water in washing ink-stains on linen, &c., proved by the iron-mould remains.

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The

practice of reviving old records by brushing them over with tincture of galls, evidences the departure of the vegetable principle, and the remains of the metallic oxide."

The above sketch tends to show that common ink depends for its colour upon very simple affinities, which are easily disturbed, both by chemical agencies and by surrounding influences, and that a colour having more fixed and complicated affinities, would be less liable to such influence, and would consequently be more durable. Some interested individuals have asserted, that the writing fluid will corrode or injure the paper or textures to which it is applied, upon which point Mr. Stephens makes the following remark:

"It is well known that papers, &c., upon which records have been written, have been

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as I have shown, slight-the combination is easily disturbed, and this, which renders the composition liable to fade, gives to it also its insecurity. The action of the sun, time, and various other causes, abstract and dissipate the vegetable principle. The iron is thus gradually left uncombined. It is a property of almost every substance to seek for combination: deprived of one substance with which it had been united, it attracts to it another; thus the iron, deprived of the gallic acid on which its colour depended, and in which state of union it had no corrosive properties, begins to attract oxygen, and, as an oxide of iron, is more or less injurious to the textures on which it had been written. If the iron exists in small proportions, the evil is small; but if it abounds in the composition, it is more strongly corrosive. Without being aware of the above cause, the fact has been known that inks containing too large a quantity of iron soon become brown. There are not wanting other facts to support this opinion. Black dyes, the composition of which is the same as ink, are well known to be more destructive to cloth, &c. than other colours. 'Black dyes perish the cloth," is a very common expression, and results from the decomposition of the colouring ingredients, and the corrosiveness of the mineral remains. From this brief analysis, the inference is tolerably plain, that if the ingredients composing a colour are united by stronger affinities than common ink, such colour will be both more permanent and more secure."

Guided by these truths, Mr. Stephens has been eminently fortunate in the se lection of substances suitable for the production of a very superior writing

destroyed by the ink, and that, not by any fluid; but he has attained perfection by

immediate effect, but after the lapse of years. And how is this caused? I have seen no statement satisfactorily accounting for it. A hasty, but very erroneous solution is generally given-namely, that it is the acid in the ink, and this assertion has generally been deemed satisfactory; but I shall have no difficulty in showing that such is not the

case.

In the first place, there exists in common ink no uncombined acid.*

"If uncombined acid existed in ink sufficiently strong to destroy the paper, the effects would be early exhibited, and consequently be of less importance, as the record could be more easily restored. The real cause of destruction is as follows:-The affinity between the vegetable and mineral principle is,

• Unless when inks are made with a proportion of vinegar.

a minute attention to the proportions, and by being careful to use all the in gredients in a state of extreme purity. Few inventions have been so gratefully received, and so extensively patronised in a short space of time, as Mr. Stephens' writing fluid; one consequence of this has been, that imitators and adulterators have sprung up, like mushrooms, with various mixtures, pretending to possess the same good qualities as the original, article.

I have critically examined most of these imitations, but have met with none yet that will compare with the writing fluid, either in point of colour, fluidity, or permanence. The following simple experiment will put the claims of this and similar productions to a fair trial:—

ORNAMENTAL SLATE MANUFACTURE.

Having written on a piece of paper with Stephens' and other fluids, pour over the writing a small quantity of a bleaching solution (chloride of lime), and the effect will be conclusive.

An objection has been made to the writing fluid, that, being more fluid, it necessarily sinks into the paper more than common ink; but I consider this, in a moderate degree, rather a virtue than a defect. It is quite evident that a colour which is intended to endure, should combine with, and in some degree dye, the substance to which it is applied. If it sits upon the surface like varnish, liable to be erased by slight scratching, and almost by friction, it cannot be expected to retain its impression strongly, any more than we should expect our coats, dyed on the outer surface only, to be durable in their colour.

A precipitate of colouring matter is liable to take place from all solutions by long standing, but the precipitate from the writing fluid is perfectly soluble; the inkstand should, therefore, be occasionally shaken, which can very easily be done, if the fountain-ink of Mr. Stephens. is employed. It will be perceived, by referring to the drawing, that these stands are constructed so as to lessen evaporation; to prevent lodgments of dust; to afford an oblique and more convenient access with grooved rests for the pen; it is also particularly adapted for the occasional agitation of the contents.

I have received much personal convenience from the use of Mr. Stephens' writing fluid; and have much pleasure in thus publicly expressing my thanks. for the same. Wishing him every

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and which do not require to be often moved (as slate is, of course, heavy), may be made of it, decorated in the most elaborate style. The natural texture of the slate, it has been found, is peculiarly ap plicable as a ground for the reception of colours; and Mr. Stirling has some specimens of tables with a wreath of flowers round the edge, and a group in the cea tre, most beautifully executed-the neutral tint of the slate forming an appropriate back-ground. A very beautiful and ap propriate application of the article has been made in the formation of door. panels. The General Steam Navigation Company has, we understand, given orders for the fitting up of the saloon of one of its new steam-vessels with these panels, painted with groups of fruit, flowers, and designs of a like nature. Amongst the numerous other articles of slate manufactured by Mr. Stirling, we shall merely particularise his door fingerplates and inkstands, which are extremely beautiful.

THE THREE-PRONG PEN.

Sir,-In your No. 667, I observe that Messrs. Mordan and Co.'s last patent fort steel-pens is noticed. The public will, no doubt, derive a great benefit from the use of them, and it must be admitted that Mordan and Co are good makers of these articles; but as to their patent right, I fear it will cost a good deal to defend it. It was certainly rather a bold step of Mordan and Co. to speculates upon a patent under the peculiar circum stances stated by your correspondent. However, I wish they may establish their patent, because I think it would prove whether the late act to amend the patent law be of any benefit or not.

For some years past I have formed several ideas about improving steel-pens, and, although not a pen-maker, I thought that I was, and perhaps am, the first in ventor of the three-prong pen, for this is the name I gave what is now called the three-nibbed pen-but I think the nib of a pen consists of all its prongs together. About a year ago, after searching almost every place where steel-pens were sold, I could not find any thing approaching my ideas on the subject, which led me to think that I had hit upon something new. I then applied to several of the pen-makers, and examined several speci

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