ness in their native land. Of two keepers of general stores, one had been a farmer, the other a cook. Of four barbers, two had been plantation laborers in Hawaii, the other two farmers in Japan. Of five restaurant proprietors, one had been a farmer, a second a fish dealer, a third a rice dealer, a fourth a carpenter, the fifth an apprentice in a small shop. Two of three lodging-house keepers had been farmers, the other an oil dealer. Of three laundry proprietors, one had been a commission merchant, another a farmer, and the third a plantation laborer in the Hawaiian Islands. These are typical of the group. They have belonged to about the same classes the laborers have been drawn from.

Though not one brought to this country at the time of coming more than $150, though sixteen brought not to exceed $50, several of them by forming partnerships began business within a year of the time of their arrival and all did so within three years. Of seven who found city employment upon arrival, one worked for wages two months, another four months, another six months, another one year, one two years, and two three years, and then undertook business on their own accounts. Of fourteen who found employment elsewhere, only one worked for more than one year before setting up in business. Most of these men own a comparatively small amount of property. Eleven own property not in excess of $1,000; six others in excess of $1,000 but not in excess of $5,000; the remaining four in excess of $10,000.

The size of personal incomes indicates the degree of prosperity enjoyed during the year 1908-9, and the amount of money saved (including small sums sent to Japan) indicates the standard of living. These data are presented in the statement following.

Though most of the men are poor, the indebtedness oustanding against their business is small as compared to the capital employed. About two-fifths of the 21 establishments investigated were using borrowed capital, but in almost every case it was a small percentage of the total.

Not including one with a much larger income and whose identity would be apparent. • Restaurant keepers whose cost of living was estimated and allowed for.

CHAPTER VII.

IMMIGRANTS, THEIR RELATIONS AND INSTITUTIONAL LIFE.

In this final chapter it remains to discuss the institutional life of the various immigrant races, their attitude toward American institutions and ideals, the extent to which they have become assimilated, the relations which exist between the several races, and other matters of sociological interest and significance. The discussion will be somewhat more inclusive of races than that which has preceded, and will be based for the greater part upon observation and testimony rather than upon statistical data.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS.

First of all the various races of numerical importance may be looked at with reference to citizenship and the places they occupy in the civic organization and life of the community.

The Japanese occupy a conspicuous place in the population of the county, but because they may not become naturalized find no place in its political life. Moreover, though most of the Japanese who have purchased property or leased farms indicate by that fact that they expect to remain in this country indefinitely if not permanently, a large percentage of these and the vast majority of the other classes of Japanese plan to return to their native land in the near future. Taking the most stable class among them, viz, farmers, of 59, 6 indicated their intention to remain permanently in the United States, 26 to return to their native land sooner or later, while 27 were in doubt what they would eventually do. Under these circumstancesthough the fact that most of the Japanese do not settle here permanently may be due in part to their anomalous position-it is doubtful whether the majority would become citizens if they might become naturalized.

Though the German-Russians and Armenians have settled permanently in the United States, they have taken comparatively little part in the political life of Fresno County. The majority of the farmers of both of these races, it is true, have taken out their second papers. The same is true of the business men, but not of the laboring classes. The majority of both races, including many who might qualify for citizenship under the present naturalization law, are aliens. This lack of interest is to be ascribed partly, no doubt, to the fact that in their native land neither race has ever had much voice in what may be called the formal government. That the majority are not yet naturalized is due in part, also, to the fact that they find it difficult to gain command of sufficient English and general information to meet the tests applied in naturalization. This is especially true of the German-Russians, who make such slow progress in these matters that those who have become naturalized have usually been coached

by the pastor of the church or some one else. It is said that frequently they must take the examination a second time. But more important is the fact that both the Armenians and the GermanRussians are more concerned about making money than about questions of government. Moreover, it must be said, the members of the former race when voting permit race and pecuniary considerations largely to control the ballots they cast. They vote almost to a man against a candidate known to be lacking in sympathy for them. Furthermore, they frequently vote for candidates who in turn will give Armenians appointive positions. Because of the number of votes they cast, they are organized and appealed to by both sets of candidates and frequently vote to further their personal interests rather than to promote the cause of good government. It should be added that their position in the community is such that they rarely serve in elective offices though a few have been elected to membership on rural school boards. The activity of the German-Russians is practically limited to voting.

Most of what has been said concerning these two races applies equally well to the Italians, a majority of whom have not become citizens. Nor have the English-but for very different reasons. Here, as elsewhere, a large percentage of the members of this race still maintain allegiance to the British Government.

The Portuguese, Danes, Swedes, and Germans, on the other hand, have nearly all become naturalized. Most of them have been in the United States for a comparatively long time, have settled here per manently, and have had the necessary time to adjust themselves to American institutions. But in addition to this, civic relationships seem to appeal more strongly to the Scandinavians and Germans than to the other races mentioned, for they usually take steps to become naturalized as soon as they are eligible. However this may be, the majority are naturalized and many of them take an active part in the local government. Several of the county officers have been Danish immigrants who had been in the United States since they were comparatively young men. As citizens the north Europeans are fully as good as the native element in the population. Their influence is wholesome.

CHURCH AFFILIATIONS.

In Fresno there are some forty churches, and in the smaller towns and in the country districts there are many more. Some of these play an important part in the lives of the immigrants.

The immigrants and their children, unless an exception must be made of the eastern Asiatics, are largely church-going people, and they usually have their own distinctive institutions. The Italians, Portuguese, Spanish, and Slavs are, for the most part, Roman Catholics and attend no separate church of their own. The Danes, Swedes, Armenians, and German-Russians, on the other hand, have their own institutions and do not come into contact very much with other races in their church attendance. Each of these races has three churches in Fresno, where the sermons are in the native tongue. Though there are exceptions, the Danes and Swedes are nearly all Lutherans. So are the German-Russians, who have retained that faith since their migration to Russia, a hundred and fifty years ago.

The Armenians, on the other hand, have numerous sects (frequently actively opposed to each other), among them those represented by the Gregorian, Presbyterian, and Congregational Churches. In all cases the sermon is in the Armenian language. Though they occasionally belong to some other church, their membership is seldom welcomed. It is said that at one time, owing to the strong objection on the part of the Americans in one Fresno church to the growing membership of Armenians, these immigrants were obliged to withdraw and erect their own church. It is said, too, that though several Armenians belong to the Young Men's Christian Association, such membership is not encouraged.

The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans have their own missions-in some other towns as well as in Fresno. The vast majority of the numerous Japanese are Buddhists. The groups of very active Christians are very much smaller and embrace a small percentage of those who are members of some religious organization.

IMMIGRANTS IN SCHOOLS.

The system of education has been less affected by immigration than have the religious affiliations. Moreover, it is chiefly through the public schools that the second generation is being Americanized and the adult foreign-born indirectly partially assimilated.

In Fresno there are 1 parochial and 13 public schools. In the county there are 118 country schools, including graded and high schools in many of the thickly settled districts. Most of these have comparatively large numbers of children (some native, others foreignborn) of immigrant parents enrolled. The table following shows the number of each race attending each of the 13 public schools in Fresno in 1908.

TABLE 13.-Number of children attending each of the thirteen public schools of Fresno in 1908, by general nativity and race of father.

• Under "Miscellaneous" are several Slavonians, Greeks, Turks, and Hollanders.

Thus, 1,814 of these pupils are of foreign-born as against 2,480 of native parentage (not including the 76 negroes). The former element predominated in a few (e. g., the Kirk), but numerous diverse elements are brought together in the majority of these schools. The relationship among the children of different races in the schools is free and cordial in the lower grades while on the school premises. This relationship, however, changes somewhat as one goes higher in the educational system, and especially off the school grounds. This applies with more force where the number of children of foreign parentage is comparatively large.

The following table shows the number of pupils enrolled in each grade by nativity:

TABLE 14.-Number of children enrolled in each specified grade in public schools of Fresno in 1908, by general nativity and race of father.

• Under "Miscellaneous" are several Slavonians, Greeks, Turks, and Hollanders.

This table shows the point at which the children of the different races had arrived in their schooling at the time the census was made. The fact that the number of children of some races (e. g. the GermanRussians) diminish more rapidly than the number of children of some other races (e. g. the American) as we proceed from the lower to the higher grades does not necessarily indicate that the former, on the average, leave off attending school earlier than the latter, for the age distribution of the children of the different races is by no means uniform. As a general rule the more recent the migration the larger the percentage of young parents and of young children. Quite independently of the movements shown by the table, it is true that the Mexicans, Italians, Portuguese, and German-Russians are apt to leave school early in order to begin work or because of deficiencies due to irregular attendance. This is less true of the Armenians. All of these races take much less interest in school matters than the north Europeans and natives. Moreover, they are less well-to-do and less able to sacrifice in order that their children may have a good

education.