tended and active and intricately organized domestic activity—a serious and absorbing and difficult function for which the training was arduous and in which, in the actual doing, the tests of efficiency were manifest and severe.

But now, with the complete establishment of the typically modern organization of industry, have arrived fundamental changes in the organization of the home-changes to which no adequate readjustments have as yet been devised. The flax and the hemp are no longer there for preparation. The spinning has migrated to the factory. The weaving is done by the great machines. The cutting and the making of garments have departed. The butter is churned at the creamery. More and more the bakeries are furnishing us with our bread. Gas and electricity leave no room for candle-making, or even for the filling and the care of lamps. The jam, the pickles, and the preserves we buy of the grocer. There are no more festoons of dried apples in the attic. The smoking of the ham and the bacon the packer does for us, along with the killing and the cleansing. There is no longer any leaching of ashes or boiling of soap to be done in the backyard. The steam laundry cleans and irons for us, and fades out and wears out for us, the garment which the factory has provided for ready use. The electric sweeper cleans our floors, the while that the day laborer runs it, and the dry-cleaner and the pantatorium care for our suits and our gowns. And the mother no longer teaches her children at the knee, sending them instead to the tax-paid employee of the schools.

And yet somehow, with all its occupations gone, the home still retains its exterior seeming and organization; and somehow also is so busy a place that, if it conform at all to the standard and ideal of American life, it requires an ever-larger array of house-maids and nurse-girls. Still our women folk grow worn and tired with its burdens, and if the house-maid fails, even desperate. Il health, dyspepsia, and nervous breakdown are increasingly feminine phenomena. And along with it all, a strange accompaniment, there are fewer and fewer children to be reared as the time of the mother ought to be more. Race suicide confronts our modern societies.

It is evident that the machine industry and the cheapened processes of production have taken away from women in large part their fundamental economic functions. Things have grown too cheap to be done by the old domestic time-consuming methods. As mere matters of dollars and cents production can take place in the home only at a cost greater than the purchase price on the market. There is no place for the home woman in the industrial activities of the present society.

But something quite other has been the meaning of the new industrial processes for the life and the labor of men. The new machinery has served to provide them with tools by which vastly to enlarge the field of their effort, and to multiply their accomplishment in every single field. No matter what the deficiencies in the organization of all this new power, men have not grown idle or sluggish. They have not forfeited their functions, their jurisdiction, their aspirations, or their accomplishment.

But the history of the race does not indicate that to men exclusively belongs the duty or the privilege of labor, or that the present economic status of women is an adequate certification of progress in civilization. If women should not work, why should men? If self-respecting man must work, by what title is it now honorific to women to be idle? We have arrived at an unfortunate reversal of an earlier institution. In early society, an almost crushing amount of labor fell upon the female; under modern conditions among the fully civilized classes an unduly excessive share devolves upon the male.

The explanation of the existing situation is chiefly in modern technology. The fault is in the failure of society to work out those readjustments by which a significant share in the world's work shall be preserved for women, either within the home or outside of it. When the home is losing its economic utility, it can be available for those men alone who, being able to afford the luxury, are disposed to pay the attendant price. The increasing expensiveness of the home under modern conditions, its restriction of function to mere consumption and spending, explains the progressive swerving of men away from it, and the derivative and increasing horde of homeless and childless women outside.

Women breadwinners within the home our present American life doubtless has. But of these it holds true, as of the women of the factory, the shop, or the street, that, although belonging by sheer necessity to our American life, they yet have no place in that society which America holds as its ideal. They are our unfortunates among women, in that they have not found each her man, and attached him to her to work for her, to shelter her from all productive effort, and to support her. For it is the grievous fact that the American ideal of reputable living denies to women the rôle of economic producer and commiserates the girl who does not marry into a life of pecuniary ease; prescribes as a duty upon any self-respecting man that he neither offer nor enter marriage if his wife need be more than decoratively active; and, if he fail of this, insults her with pity and him. with contempt.

It is in the cause of motherhood that we make our protest against the typical home of the American ideal. The economic dependence of women cannot be defended by the test of children; they are in inverse ratio to the room for them. The poor alone can afford to be prolific.

But not all housebound women would confess themselves to be idle. Think how absorbing and complicated the keeping of the home has become: its meticulous refinement, its ornate entertainments, its furniture and bric-a-brac for dusting, its curtains for cleaning, its rugs for beating. Busy indeed these women will bebut busy in keeping busy-absorbed in the empty competition of modern housekeeping, in the collection of work-compelling plunder, in the maintenance of exhibition rooms, and in the general annihilation of comfort. The two hours' labor that should suffice for all rational daily needs, were there only something else to do, is devoted to the preparation of mayonnaise dressings or to the concoction of snow puddings, or to other certification of useless skill. Dishwashing, instead of coming thrice a week, comes three times a day. The laundry work piles up to the proportions of a nightmare. The one child, wearied by overdressing and spoiled by fussing care, pines for the forbidden joys of dirt and bare feet. Acquiescing in all this futility, the housewife finds enough her mere labors of supervision.

Meanwhile, the man whose business it is to pay the bills is busy enough in the process-too busy, indeed, in making the income to have either the time or the taste for the spending of it. But no pity is due to this tired captain of industry, or this busy moiler in trade or finance for the burden he carries. He may, no doubt, appear to be a mere pack-animal in the service of his family-a weary though willing slave to their folly—a man solely occupied in canceling the bills they are busy in contracting. But he is aiming at his own glory. To the women, as helpless victims of the competition of display, the function of spending has been delegated. Institutionally the wife is a mere agent in the process. Not only must she, to the degree that her lord is wealthy or is aping the possessors of wealth avoid whatever remnant of useful activity is open to her, lest the suspicion of need should attach to shame him; but also, by waste and lavish outlay, must she place upon exhibit and in continuous view the wealth and achievements of her master. In this process of certifying the fact of his financial prowess by seeming to spend upon herself, she seems to afford both motive and excuse for gaining the wealth. Such glory as belongs to her part is in being the wife of such a one, and in the delusion that he is making the money for

her spending, rather than that she is spending it for his glory. The personal relation easily obscures the larger meanings of the institutional fact.

E. THE EXTENSION OF INDUSTRIALISM

32. The Competitive Victory of Western Culture13

BY JAMES BRYCE

What is it that the traveler sees today in India, in Africa, in the two Americas, in Australia, in the isles of the Pacific? He sees the smaller, weaker, and more backward races changing or vanishing under the impact of civilized man; their languages disappearing; their religious beliefs withering; their tribal organizations dissolving; their customs fading slowly away.

From the blending of others with immigrants streaming in, a hybrid race is growing up in which the stronger and more civilized element seems fated to predominate. In other cases people too large and powerful to lose their individuality are nevertheless beginning to be so affected by European influences as to find themselves passing into a new circle of ideas and a new set of institutions. Change is everywhere, and the process of change is so rapid that the past will soon be forgotten. It is a past the like of which can

never recur.

There is one other aspect of the present age of the world that has a profound and novel meaning for the historian. The world is becoming one in an altogether new sense. More than four centuries. ago the discovery of America marked the first step in the process by which the European races have now gained dominion over nearly the whole of the earth. The last great step was the partition of Africa a little more than twenty years ago.

Now, almost every part of the earth's surface, except the territories of China and Japan, is either owned or controlled by five or six European races. Eight Great Powers sway the political destinies of the globe and there are only two other countries that can be thought of as likely to enter after a while into the rank of the Great Powers. Similarly a few European tongues have overspread all the continents except Asia, and there it seems probable that those European tongues will before long be learned and used by the educated classes in such wise as to bring those classes into touch with European ideas. It is likely that by 2000 A. D. more than nine-tenths of the human race will be speaking less than twenty languages.

13

Adapted from an address delivered before the International Congress of Historical Studies, London, May, 1913.

Already there are practically only four great religions in the world. Within a century the minor religions may be gone; and possibly only three great faiths will remain. Those things which are already strong are growing stronger; those already weak are growing weaker and are ready to vanish away. Thus, as the earth has been narrowed through the new forces science has placed at her disposal, and as the larger human groups absorb and assimilate the smaller, the movements of politics, of economics, and of thought in each of its regions become more closely interwoven with those of every other. Finance, even more than politics, has now made the world one community, and finance is more closely interwoven with politics than ever before.

World history is tending to become one history, the history not longer of many different races of mankind occasionally affecting one another's fortunes, but the history of mankind as a whole, the fortunes of each branch henceforth bound up with those of the others.

33. The Economic Conflict of Western and Primitive Culture

BY FRIEDA S. MILLER

Not once, since the Turks captured Constantinople, has European civilization been threatened by an external force. Yet, since that time, and by its own volition, it has been in constant contact with non-European peoples in their own countries. Clearly the West was not summoned by China to establish an open-door policy, and the American Indians invited no discovery.

The motive to European expansion may afford some clue to its possible effect. Religious persecution, political differences, scientific curiosity, all these have played their part; but the persistent aim has always been economic gain. The lure of the guinea alike led Spain to America, Portugal around the African cape, England to India. and South Africa, and Russia across the snows to the walls of China. Pecuniary profit has been the lodestar that has led the West to the East. This motive is the open sesame to an understanding of the business of the Occident in the Orient. It means, above all, that the "new" countries, possessed of their tremendous resources, which can be unlocked only by the white man's magic key of the machine process, are to be used for the white man's profit. In its extreme form, before civilization softened the formalities, it meant for the natives slavery and transportation to distant lands. But such practices have been succeeded by a strict legal and moral code which regulates the contact of white man and native. The white man may