other individuals of the same species, but from other species of marine animals as well.

C. Immunization.

1. Erysipelas-the initial immunization of a recently captured marine mammal is accomplished using a killed bacterin which is commonly used for immunization of swine. Revaccination at six month intervals utilizing a modified live culture, a virulent erysypilas vaccine, is used as a booster to maintain a protective level of antibodies.

2. Clostridium-all marine mammals are vaccinated against Clostridium perfringens, using a killed bacterin, soon after arrival and at six month intervals from then on.

D. Sanitation. Lacking the dilution factor and the biological systems which maintain ecological balance in nature, it is extremely important that the level of pathogenic microorganisms be kept to a minimum in the tanks in which these animals are either maintained or exhibited The aquarium maintains a quality control laboratory which is capable of doing microbiological cultures for coliform organisms, as a check on the effectiveness of filtrating systems. When such cultures exceed acceptable levels, animals are removed, and chlorine levels are increased to purge the system and kill off any resistant organisms which may have established themselves.

E. Food fish. Since the most obvious source for the introduction of Erysipelas, Clostridia, or any other pathogenic organisms is in the food fish, the importance of minimizing the numbers of such microorganisms has been emphasized. The proper management of the food fish requires close supervision of the staff as follows:

1. The quality of fish purchased-all food fish purchased should be fit for human consumption of the best quality available, purchased in the frozen state.

2. Thawing-food fish should be thawed in a refrigerator at approximately 40° F. More specifically, thawing at either room temperature or by use of warm water, should be avoided, as either of these methods allows the outer surface areas and outer fish to reach temperatures considerably above 40° F. before the center of a large block gets thawed. Higher temperatures also lead to an excessive manufacture within the fish of histamine through the decomposition of protein, a factor that contributes to the formation of gastric ulcers and other digestive problems.

3. Preparation for feeding-whether the fish are to be fed whole or cut up, once they are prepared, they should be maintained under refrigeration at 40° F. until they are immediately used. Here discipline is required to avoid such practices as leaving buckets of food on the show platform between shows or between feeding periods.

It is through the efforts of veterinarians whose interest in aquatic animal medicine has largely resulted from the requests by commercial exhibitors, that much of the veterinary knowledge about marine animals has been developed. Within the closed ecological systems of commercial aquaria, controlled research can be conducted, which leads to the acquisition of technical knowledge that has made significant contributions to the ecology of such animals in the wild.

Furthermore, in cooperation with scientists from Roswell Park Memorial Institute for Cancer Research, routine blood samples from various species in marine animals have been utilized in comparative studies in hematology, serology, and blood chemistry as a vital part of cancer research.

I hope this is the kind of information you need to convince people that the marine animals, at least in this commercial aquarium are provided with excellent professional veterinary care, so that they can continue to be a public exhibit which is both educational as well as entertaining.

Sincerely,

THURMAN S. GRAFTON, D.V.M.,
Charter Member, IAAAM.

Mr. ROBERT MOORE

Aquarium of Niagara Falls, Inc.,
Niagara Falls, N.Y.

Addendum No. 3

ROSWELL PARK MEMORIAL INSTITUTE,
Buffalo, N.Y., February 24, 1972.

DEAR MR. MOORE: The dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) have contributed to our research, in identification of uncommon red cell blood groups of cancer patients.

The serum from dolphin blood donors is utilized in studies of rare blood groups of cancer patients and normal subjects. Dolphin isoagglutinins have been studied before by scientists interested in transfusion problems of dolphins undergoing veterinary surgery, to save their lives. Our collaborative efforts represent the first to evaluate biomedical application of natural antibodies of dolphin blood serum.

Sincerely yours,

ELIAS COHEN, Ph. D., Principal Cancer Research Scientist.

STATEMENT OF MYRON S. JACOBS, PH.D., HEAD, CETACEAN BRAIN LABORATORY AND STAFF SCIENTIST, OSBORN LABORATORIES OF MARINE SCIENCES, NEW YORK AQUARIUM

INTELLIGENCE IN THE LARGE-BRAINED CETACEA

Man's ability to dominate and manipulate his environment depends on his superior brain. Without the so-called "intelligence" associated with this large brain, man's success at competing with larger mammals sharing his world would be limited since his body size, muscular strength and speed of movement are not impressive. The normal human brain ranges in weight from 950 grams (ca. 2 lbs.) to about 1700 grams (ca. 34 lbs.), with the average for males being about 1350 grams (ca. 3 lbs.) and for females about 1250 grams (ca. 24 lbs.). The minimal brain weight believed to be compatible with normal brain "intelligence" is about 950 grams. However, man is not the only mammal possessing a large brain. Certain land mammals, such as elephants, and aquatic mammals, such as whales and dolphins, possess brains which are as large or larger than man's. Comparative neuroanatomists, such as myself, have been interested for a long time in the similarities and differences between brains of different species. We would like to determine how the structures and neural mechanisms of the brain dictate behaviors and levels of "intelligence".

Since 1960, studies carried out in my laboratory have concentrated on the gross and microscopic organization of the brains of whales and dolphins, all species of which constitute an order of exclusively aquatic mammals known as Cetacea. During this time I have examined brain specimens representing 14 cetacean species and have published some of my observations in anatomical journals.23 Colleagues at other laboratories throughout the world have carried out similar studies on additional cetacean species so that our collective data on brain characteristics in these unique mammals are widely representative of the entire Order.

The attached table, prepared for a forthcoming publication on the cetacean nervous system,' lists the most basic of brain measurements, total brain weight, for a number of whale and dolphin species. It demonstrates clearly the wide range of brain sizes among different members of the cetacean order.

1 Cetacean Brain Laboratory, Oshorn Laboratories of Marine Sciences, New York Aquarium, Surf Avenue and West 8th Street, Brooklyn, New York 11224

2 Jacobs, M.S. and A.V. Jensen 1964 Gross aspets of the brain and a fiber analysis of cranial nerves in the great whale. J. Comp. Neur., 123: 55-72.

3 Jacobs, Myron S., P.J. Morgane and Willard L. McFarland 1971 The anatomy of the brain of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Rhinic Lobe (Rhinencephalon). I. The paleocortex. J. Comp. Neur., 141: 205-272.

Morgane, P.J. and M.S. Jacobs 1972 (In Press) Comparative anatomy of the cetacean nervous system. In: Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals (R.J. Harrison, ed.). Academic Press, London and New York.

Even within the same species, such as the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, there is great variability between individual brain sizes. Such variations are understandable in terms of the wide range of cetacean body size. The relationship of brain to body weight in Cetacea is paralleled in other mammalian orders including primates, to which man belongs. If one considers the harbor porpoise and blue whale, two cetaceans of widely different body size, the brain to body weight relationship becomes clearer. The harbor porpoise has a body of length about 125 centimeters (4 ft.) and a body weight of 31 kilograms (68 lbs.). Its brain weighs about 412 grams (ca. 1 lb.), which represents slightly more than 1% of its body weight. On the other hand, the massive blue whale, a species hunted almost to extinction, attains a length of 3050 centimeters (100 ft.) and a body weight of 136,000 kilograms (150 tons); it has a brain that weighs about 6000 grams (ca. 13 lbs.). Its brain represents only a small fraction of 1% of its body weight. Adult man, by comparison, has a brain weight representing about 2% of his body weight. It is obvious, then, that the smaller cetacean species more closely approximate the brain to body weight ratio of man than do the larger species. However, the real meaning of brain-body weight ratios is obscure. It does caution us against concluding that large brains mean great intelligence and vice versa, but may have little meaning beyond that.

An alternative approach to evaluating the capabilities of cetacean brains is to compare their structure to the brains of better known mammals. On the basis of structural similarities between the cerebral cortex of cetaceans and higher land mammals, it would appear that whales and dolphins indeed do possess the ability of complex cerebral functions. The attached figure shows the brain of the beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas, on the right and man on the left. Most of what you see is the highly folded cerebral cortex. The surface area of the cortex, and thus the number of its cells, is increased by these convolutions. The cerebral cortex of the beluga whale and, in fact, of all Cetacea is more highly convoluted than in man.

The cerebral cortex of all mammals may be divided into three structural types on the basis of architectural organization and arrangement of its cells. Each of these three types of cortex is indicative of a different stage of mammalian evolution. Mammals, being relatively new forms of vertebrate life, possess large amount of new or "neocortex". In the ascendancy of land mammals leading to primates and culminating man, an increasingly greater percentage of the total cerebral cortex is neocortex. To illustrate this neocortical increase in a few land mammals, 69% of the total cortex of the kangaroo is neocortex, while 93% is neocortex in the macaque monkey and the man's cortex is 96% neocortex. In one of the dolphin species, Delphinus delphis, 98% of its cortex is neocortex," an even greater proportion than is found in man! My extensive studies of the cerebral cortex of the bottlenose dolphin has revealed that a vast expanse of neocortex is also present in this species of dolphin. Additional observations on gross specimens of other cetacean species suggest that large proportions of cortex devoted to neocortex are a general feature of the cetacean brain.

Despite the evolutionary separation of Cetacea from terrestrial lines of mammals such as monkeys and man for approximately 50 million years, striking similarities exist in their cerebral cortices. For practical reasons, more neuroanatomical studies have been conducted on land mammals than on aquatic mammals. Limited data comparing the cortical organization of cetaceans and land mammals are availble. The cerebral cortex of man contains approximately 14 billion neurons, the majority of nerve cells in his brain. The number of nerve cells in the cetacean cortex is even greater. In man, these cells are most likely responsible for functions such as ideation and memory processing. In this regard, the cerebral cortex functions on at least three levels. It (1)

5 Filimonov, IN. 1964 Comparative anatomy of the cerebral cortex of Mammals. Faleocortex, Archicortex, and Intermediate Cortex. English transl. by V. Dukhoff. JPRS:29:657, Office Scientific Information, Dept. Interior, Washington, D.C., 398pp. Edinger, T. 1955 Hearing and smell in cetacean history. Monatsch. Psychiat. Neurol., 129: 37-58.

7 Economo, C. von and G.N. Koskinas 1925 Die Cytoarchitektonik der Hirnrinde des erwachsenen Menschen. Springer, Wien u Berlin.

8 Krause, C. and G. Pilleri 1969 Quantative Untersuchungen uber die Grosshirnrinde der Cetaceen. In: Investigations on Cetacea, Vol. I (G. Pilleri, ed.). Benteli AG, Berne-Bumpliz, pp. 127-150.

CETACEAN BRAIN & BODY MEASUREMENTS"

Brain wgt. Body wgt. Body Igth,Brain/body

Odontocete

species

(gm) (2)!

(kg)

(cm) wgt. ratio

Estimated from body length using tables in Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 7 Animal anorexic for 1 month premortem.

76-491 O 72 pt. 1 40

records changes in the external and internal environment, (2) it evaluates the environment on the basis of needs and experience. and (3) it initiates motor activity to adjust to its internal and external environment. The regions of the cortex subserving these activities are referred to, respectively, as sensory, association and motor cortex. The point that I wish to emphasize is that many of the higher cortical functions associated with "intelligence" and be havioral versatility in land mammals appear to be influenced greatly by the amount of association cortex present. A relatively larger association cortex appears to give an animal distinct survival advantages in enabling it to develop alternative response patterns to new situations. In terms of surface area at least, there seems to be more association cortex present in cetaceans than man, suggesting that, if we are dealing with homologous regions, than yes, cetaceans must surely be capable of rather complex cerebral activity.

The major obstacle to stating unequivocally that whales and dolphins do possess a high level of "intelligence" lies in the anthropomorphic quality of this term which really should be restricted to man. The long evolution of the cetacean brain has been associated with the development of numerous body specializations and adaptations to an environment that is totally foreign to man. We are humans and our cerebral cortex can only function in a human way. Similarly, cetaceans have evolved very respectable brains that undoubtedly have exceptional functional capabilities in their special environment. With this established, the word "intelligence" can then be reapplied. Perhaps the dolphin possesses as much dolphin "intelligence" as man possesses human intelligence. If cortically mediated behavior is an adequate index of intelligence, then the structural similarity between the cortex of man and dolphin suggests high cetacean intelligence.

STATEMENT OF JOHN GRANDY, ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT, NATIONAL PARKS AND

CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION

My name is John W. Grandy, IV, 1701 18th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. I am Administrative Assistant for Wildlife at the National Parks and Conservation Association. I appreciate the invitation of the Committee to testify in these hearings.

The National Parks and Conservation Association is the leading national conservation organization concerned primarily with the protection of the National Park System, but also with other major environmental and conservation subjects such as wildlife and forestry.

The NPCA is an independent, private non-profit membership institution, educational and scientific in character, with nearly 55,000 members throughout