progress, a model temporary city has been constructed. Churches and schools are provided for the workmen, and the health of the community is safeguarded by proper sanitary measures. This condition of affairs has been brought about by the fact that the work near Brownsville will require a number of years for its completion.

ΧΙ

THE IMMIGRANT AS A DYNAMIC FACTOR IN INDUSTRY

The absorption of so large numbers of alien people into the mines and manufacturing establishments, and into the general labor force of the United States, was obviously attended by very important results. These effects of the intense employment of southern and eastern Europeans may be briefly considered, from (1) the standpoint of the general industrial situation, and (2) from that of native Americans and older workmen. Before entering into a discussion of these effects, however, it will be necessary, in order that the situation may be fully comprehended, to review briefly the personal and industrial qualities of the recent immigrant labor supply to the United States. These are briefly set forth below.

Salient Characteristics of the Immigrant Labor Supply

LACK OF TECHNICAL TRAINING

One of the facts of greatest import has been, that an exceedingly small proportion have had any training abroad for the industrial occupations in which they have found employment in the United States. Most recent immigrants have been drawn from the agricultural classes of southern and eastern Europe, having been farmers, or farm laborers, or other unskilled

laborers in their native lands. The only exception is the Hebrews, three-fifths of whom were engaged in some form of manufacturing or hand-trades before coming to this country.*

ILLITERACY AND INABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH

The new immigrant labor supply, owing to the fact that it is composed of men of non-English-speaking races, and is characterized by a high degree of illiteracy, has been found to possess but small resources upon which to develop industrial efficiency and advancement. Owing to their segregation and isolation from the native American population in living and working conditions, their progress in acquiring the use of the English language, and in learning to read and write, has been very slow.

THEIR NECESSITOUS CONDITION

Another salient fact in connection with the recent imntigrant-labor supply has been the necessitous condition of the newcomers upon their arrival in American industrial communities. Immigrants from the south and east of Europe have usually had but a few dollars in their possession when their final destination in this country has been reached. During the past eight years the average amount per person among these immigrants has been about one-third as much as among immigrants from northern and western Europe. Consequently, finding it absolutely imperative to engage in work at once, they have not been in a posi

* In Appendix C detailed statistical tables will be found substantiating the statements made in this chapter relative to the personal and industrial characteristics of recent immigrants from southern and eastern Europe as contrasted with those of former years from Great Britain and Western Europe. These tables show (1) Industrial condition of immigrants abroad; (2) general literacy; (3) ability to speak English; (4) conjugal condition; and (5) congestion within immigrant households.

tion to take exception to wages or working conditions, but must obtain employment on the terms offered or suffer from actual want.

LOW STANDARDS OF LIVING

The standards of living of the recent industrial workers from the south and east of Europe have also been very low. Furthermore, the recent immigrants being usually single, or, if married, having left their wives abroad, have in large measure adopted a group instead of a family living arrangement, and thereby have reduced their cost of living to a point far below that of the American or of the older immigrant in the same industry. The method of living often followed is that commonly known as the "boardingboss" system, which has already been described in considerable detail.

Under this general method of living, which prevails among the greater proportion of the immigrant households, the entire outlay for necessary living expenses of each adult member ranges from $9 to $15 each month. The additional expenditures of the recent immigrant wage-earners are small. Every effort has been made to save as much as possible. The entire life interest and activity of the average wage-earner from southern and eastern Europe has seemed to revolve about three points: (1) to earn the largest possible amount under the existing conditions of work; (2) to live upon the basis of minimum cheapness, and (3) to save as much as possible. All living arrangements have been subordinated to the desire to reduce the cost of living to its lowest level. Comfort seems not to be considered.

LACK OF PERMANENT INTEREST

Another salient characteristic of recent immigrants who have sought work in American industries has been that, as a whole, they have manifested but a small degree of permanent interest in their employment or in the industry. They have constituted a mobile, migratory, and disturbing wage-earning class, constrained mainly by their economic interest, and moving readily from place to place according to changes in working conditions or fluctuations in the demand for labor.

This condition of affairs is made possible by the fact that so large a proportion of the recent immigrant employees are single men, or married men whose wives are abroad, and by the additional fact that the prevailing method of living among immigrant workmen is such as to enable them to detach themselves from an occupation or a locality whenever they may wish. Their accumulations also are in the form of cash or are quickly convertible into cash. In brief, the recent immigrant has no property or other constraining interests which attach him to a community, and the larger proportion are free to follow the best industrial inducements. This characteristic has both a good and a bad influence. It creates a certain flexibility in, the labor supply, and to a certain extent brings about an exodus from the country in times of depression and curtailment of employment. It also causes an increased pressure and competition within the country, which is discust later.