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work. The negroes are by far the best customers in the commissary. They are generally unmarried men with no responsibilities, roaming from one place to another, spending their entire earnings in the commissary. They often cash their time at a discount, and then spend the money before leaving the commissary. The Croatians are good livers in comparison with the other foreign races, and they do not stint themselves in food or drink. The negroes spend their surplus above what is needed for food for gaudy clothes and patentleather shoes, but the Croatians spend theirs for beer, or for such substitute for that beverage as may be had at the commissary. Altho extravagant, they do not, however, spend as much as the negroes, who loiter about the commissaries looking for something for which to spend their money. The Croatians know what they want and buy it freely, but if there is a surplus of their wages it is saved. The Italians, living as they do, very cheaply, buy little from the commissaries.

In a general way the laborers are required to patronize the commissaries. If a wholesale boycott of the commissaries by the laborers were to take place, there is no doubt that they would be replaced by others who would patronize the stores. In localities where other stores are convenient there is a good deal of buying at these other stores, especially when labor is more scarce than work, and the men feel more independent. The men, both negroes and foreigners, understand that they will be more likely to be employed on other work if they deal at the commissaries instead of other stores. In isolated districts, where no other stores are convenient, the men must necessarily patronize the commissaries altho the prices are high.

The chief method of securing the patronage of the laborers is that of "paying off." The men are paid only once a month. This of itself has a great deal of influence in the direction of extravagance. A man coming into camp on the first of the month will not be paid until about the 20th of the following month. He must have food and clothes and is credited for only as much as is due him on the time books, unless he be an old employee who has worked for the company before and can be trusted. If he should leave before pay day, his time is cashed with 10 per cent. deducted, or he may take it in supplies at the commissary, subject to no discount from what is due him.

DETENTION PRACTISES

The detention of laborers in the camps is practised to some extent wherever the contractor advances transportation for men brought on the work. While the practise is generally applied to the transportation men, it is sometimes indulged in also when men who are leaving are badly needed to continue the work. The chief methods have been: (1) through the local authorities, and (2) by armed guards. The method of having the escaping men arrested on the charge of violating the boarding-house law is the safest to the contractors and most frequently used. Laborers are

frequently brought to the work on free transportation, having made an agreement to work out their indebtedness. After getting to the neighborhood in which the work is being done, they leave the contractor who brought them in and work for another company where they do not have the cost of their transportation deducted from their wages. In order to protect themselves against this practise, the contractors have the

men arrested and confronted with a jail sentence when attempting to leave. They are then willing to remain and work out their indebtedness. Sometimes in the

more isolated camps the men are closely watched by the foreman and other bosses, who carry arms, and are driven back and shut up in their shanties and held until they agree to return to work, or their baggage may be taken from them and held until they have worked themselves free from debt. These practises are more in evidence during the periods of special activity in construction work, as these men are more often offered transportation in advance, and after getting into the neighborhood are better able to find other work. On the other hand, in dull times, the men are glad to pay their own transportation and are not so liable to leave the work.

Southern Employer's Preferences for Labor

The order in which the labor is classed as to preference by the Southern contractor is: (1) negroes, (2) Croatians, and (3) all others except Italians. In point of numbers the Italians exceed by far any other foreign race on construction work in this region, with the Croatians coming second. The other foreign races are so sparsely represented that the comparisons are made between only these three. Negroes are everywhere preferred to members of any other race. They are good teamsters, and are used as wagon-drivers and in all places requiring the control of more than a single mule. Altho they do not work regularly, it is said that while working only four-fifths of the time they do more work than the foreigners working full time. A contractor employing, negro labor keeps

a full camp at all times, thereby assuring himself a full force. After each pay-day there is a considerable falling off of the negro labor for two or three days, during which time the workmen gamble, drink and spend their money in the commissary. After having spent all their money they return and work regularly until the next pay day. Another respect in which the negroes surpass the foreign labor is the ease with which they are handled on the work. They do not resent rough treatment as readily as the foreign laborers, nor do they unite to leave when one of their number is discharged. Still another, and probably the strongest reason for employing negro labor is, as has already been stated, the inclination to spend the entire earnings in the commissary.

Maintenance of Law and Order in Southern Camps

The maintenance of law and order rests solely with the foreman or walking-bosses, as the camp superintendents are called. Local authorities never interfere, unless there is some infraction of the law affecting people outside of the camp. They are occasionally called in when the contractors wish to detain transportation men, but rarely to settle trouble in camp among the men. There is a characteristic feeling among these walking-bosses that to ask for the assistance of the local authorities is to acknowledge their own inefficiency.

In all camps where immigrants are employed, beer, or some substitute which is practically the same thing, has to be supplied in order to keep the men. It is handled principally by the padrone or contractor, who has it shipped to the camps in barrel lots, consigned

to different men in the camp so as to get around the prohibition laws. It is then sold at the commissaries with a profit. In many instances the men do actually order it for themselves by the keg or crate, and it is the existence of this practise that renders it possible for the commissaries to handle it without molestation from the authorities. When the sentiment of the neighboring population is too strong against this practise, a contractor sells an imitation beer as a substitute. This is often a cheap grade of beer in bottles bearing a label of a malt extract.

The Middle States

The conditions of work and living are practically the same in construction and other seasonal work in the Middle States, or New York, Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, as in the South. Laborers are secured by means of regular agencies, and the padrone system is also followed. The housing facilities are also the same as in the South, with the exception that in cases where the work is being carried on near the larger cities and towns the workmen often provide their own quarters. Because the country is more thickly populated, the laborers also frequently buy provisions in the stores of the towns or cities located near the work, but in the more remote localities the commissaries are always found. The negro, of course, does not form such a large proportion of the labor force in the North as in the South, and the contractors mainly depend upon the recent immigrant.

In connection with the construction of the new water-supply system for the city of New York, at Brownsville, where some of the heaviest work is in

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