Preserving the framework does not require, however, a dramatic increase in authors' rights, such as more limited or no further applicability of the fair use doctrine in the NII environment. Some have argued that because it may now be technically feasible to "meter" each use of a copyrighted work, and to charge a user a fee for the use, the concept of fair use has no place in the NII environment. They argue equally that other limitations on rights should be abolished or narrowed for similar reasons. The Working Group believes that weakening copyright owners' rights in the NII is not in the public interest; nor would a dramatic increase in their rights be justified. arts. 29 With no more than minor clarification and limited amendment, the Copyright Act will provide the necessary balance of protection of rights and limitations on those rights to promote the progress of science and the useful Existing copyright law needs only the fine tuning that technological advances necessitate, in order to maintain the balance of the law in the face of onrushing technology. There must be, however, effort in three disciplines -- law, technology and education to successfully address the intellectual property issues raised by the development and use of the NII. 29 The Working Group believes that no revision of the patent, trademark or trade secret law is warranted at this time. See discussion infra pp. 155-75, 236-38. I. LAW A. COPYRIGHT 1. PURPOSE OF COPYRIGHT LAW The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress has the power to "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."30 The framers of the Constitution did not discuss this clause at any length prior to or after its adoption." The purpose of the clause was described in the Federalist Papers by James Madison: The utility of this power will scarcely be 30 31 See U.S. CONST., art. I, § 8, cl. 8. On August 18, 1787, James Madison submitted to the delegates to the Constitutional Convention a list of powers to be granted Congress, which included the power "To secure to literary authors their copyrights for a limited time" and "To encourage, by premiums and provisions, the advancement of useful knowledge and discoveries." At the same time, Charles Pinckney submitted a list which included the power "To grant patents for useful inventions" and "To secure to authors exclusive rights for a certain time." On September 5, the clause "To promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries" was agreed to unanimously. On September 17, 1787, the draft was signed by the delegates to the convention with no substantive changes. See Debates on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution as reported by James Madison. The clause was finally ratified in its present form in 1788. George Washington signed the first copyright law on May 31, 1790. The Constitution outlines both the goal that Congress may try to achieve (to promote the progress of science and useful arts) and the means by which they may accomplish it (by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries).33 The Supreme Court has often spoken about the purpose of copyright: [I]t should not be forgotten that the Framers We have often recognized the monopoly The primary objective of copyright is not to 333 34 Goldstein v. California, 412 U.S. 546, 555 (1973). Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 471 U.S. 539, 558 (1985) (hereinafter Harper & Row). See also id. at 546 ("monopoly created by copyright thus rewards the individual author in order to benefit the public'"). 35 Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc., 114 S. Ct. 1023, 1029 (1994) (quoting Sony, supra note 22, at 429). 36 Feist Publication, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 340, 349-50 (1991) (citations omitted) (hereinafter Feist). The economic philosophy behind the The monopoly privileges that Congress may 38 [C]opyright is intended to increase and not to The copyright law, like the patent statutes, makes consideration.... It is said that reward to the 39 Harper & Row, supra note 34, at 545-46 (citing Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 U.S. 151, 156 (1975)). |