10.4 per cent of the income of the latter and only 6.1 per cent of the income of the foreign-born.

On comparing the several races it will be noted that the Poles derive a much larger percentage of the total yearly family income from the earnings of husbands and a much smaller percentage from the payments of boarders or lodgers than do either the Croatians or Magyars. No part of the total yearly income of the Croatians and only a small percentage of the income of the Magyars and Poles is obtained from the earnings of wives, while from the contributions of children the Poles receive a slightly larger percentage of the total yearly income than do the Magyars or Croatians.

CHAPTER IV.

WORKING CONDITIONS.

Hours worked per day and per week-Regularity of employment Company houses— The company-store system-Hospital service and sanitary conditions-The immigrant and organized labor-Reasons for the employment of immigrants-Employment of women and children-[Text Tables 514 and 515 and General Table 280].

HOURS WORKED PER DAY AND PER WEEK.

While approximately the same in each of the three steel plants in the community, the number of hours worked per day and week varies in the different departments of the respective plants. Some departments work six days a week, and some work seven. All the latter are twelve-hour shifts, and the others are ten-hour shifts.

REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT.

The regularity of work in the community fluctuates with the demand for iron and steel products. When business conditions are normal, the three steel plants run on full time and employ a full force of men. During the depression of 1907 and 1908 two of the plants ran on short time in order to keep the machinery of the plants in use, while one plant closed entirely and remained closed for nearly one year. The following table shows, by general nativity and race of individual, months worked during the past year by males in the households studied who were 16 years of age or over and who were employed away from home:

Table 514.-Months worked during the past year by males 16 years of age or over employed away from home, by general nativity and race of individual.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

The total native-born represented in the preceding table show a considerably larger proportion working the full year, as well as nine months or over, than do the foreign-born. Persons native-born of foreign father show a slightly smaller percentage than do the nativeborn, and a considerably larger percentage than the foreign-born, working twelve months and nine months or over. All three classes exhibit about the same proportions working six months or over or three months or over, the native-born in each case being slightly above the other two. The greatest regularity of work is shown by persons native-born of native father, 40 per cent of whom, as compared with 17 per cent of the foreign-born, were at work steadily throughout the year, and 66.7 per cent, as contrasted with 40.4 per cent of the foreign-born, being at work nine months or longer. Of the foreign-born, the Croatians have the smallest per cent at work. twelve months, but the largest working six months or over or nine months or over.

COMPANY HOUSES.

Of the entire number of houses occupied by the men who work in the steel mills in Community D, only about 25 per cent belong to either of the operating steel companies. The largest corporation owns the dwellings of approximately 46 per cent of its employees: the smaller concern, "Company Two," owns 10 per cent of the dwellings represented by its total employees; while "Company Three" owns no houses or tenements. No exploitation in connection with the management of company houses was discovered. The company houses are much more sanitary and desirable than are the houses owned by individuals and by landlords throughout the community. Board and lodging are not furnished by either of the operating companies. The dwellings furnished by "Company One" are of brick, with four or five rooms, running water, flush, running water-closets, comfortable piazzas on the front of each, and a small grass plat in the front of each, the latter being cared for and kept up by the company.

THE COMPANY-STORE SYSTEM.

None of the steel companies of Community D own or operate commissary stores or are interested in any general merchandise or other stores that serve the immigrant population. From inquiries made among the immigrants themselves, it is believed that the greatest liberty is extended to the employees by the companies in this respect.

HOSPITAL SERVICE AND SANITARY CONDITIONS.

One large hospital is located in the community, and this is of a semiphilanthropic character. It is maintained by the largest of the steel companies, and the charges for its services to employees of the company are merely nominal. Inside the steel plants, sanitary conditions are fairly good. The work in the steel yards is especially attractive from the health standpoint, while inside the plant proper there is plenty of fresh air, the windows being kept wide open even in winter. Sanitary flush closets are provided, and these are well

kept and are clean. The sanitary conditions inside the plants are in striking contrast to the conditions which exist in the homes of the employees.

THE IMMIGRANT AND ORGANIZED LABOR.

There are no labor organizations among the employees in the steel mills of this community. All three plants are run as open shops. The immigrants, who are in the majority among the workers, seem to take no interest whatever in trade unionism. A few employees were found who are members of labor organizations, but all of these had joined before coming to Community D.

The following table, which covers, by general nativity and race of individual, the affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over in the households studied who are working for wages, shows that, upon information obtained from 441 individuals, only 2, or fivetenths per cent, are affiliated with trade unions, and it is interesting to note that these two persons are of the Polish race.

TABLE 515.-Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

REASONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS.

The principal reason for the employment of immigrants in the steel plants in the community was that at the time of the erection of the steel plants there immigrant labor was the most available. The superintendent of one plant stated that his company is entirely dependent upon the immigrant labor supply to fill certain positions, and if the immigrants had not been available in 1901 the company could not have commenced operations. It is the expressed opinion of various employers that the distinction of race is not of prime importance in the selection of men to fill the different grades of employment. At the same time, however, the native white employees, together with the English, Irish, and Germans, are preferred for the more skilled positions. Poles, Magyars, and Slovaks of recent arrival in the United States are employed only in the unskilled occupations, but there are no caste barriers to their advancement, and individuals of these races are shown the same consideration, if they prove capable, as are workingmen of the other races, the native white included.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN.

With the exception of a few scrub women, no women or girls are employed in or around any of the steel plants. The only boys under 18 years of age who find employment are messengers or office boys. Young men from 18 to 20 years of age are employed principally in the steel yards and not in the more dangerous occupations about the furnaces. In 1907 the state government, under the jurisdiction of which this community comes, made a report in which child-labor conditions were discussed. This report shows that all of the employees working in the steel plants were over 18 years of age, and also that during a representative period of seven months 13 children's employment certificates had been issued by local boards of health. All of the children to whom such certificates were issued were given positions as office boys, messengers, etc., none being engaged in the more technical occupations. A great many of the immigrant women residing in the community find employment in the adjoining city either as domestic servants or as scrub women, office cleaners, etc. Among immigrant women of the more advanced types, a few secure employment as clerks in department stores; also there are several general industries, such as a soap-making establishment and a packing house, which employ women and girls.