quently in debt than are the Croatians, Servians, and Roumanians. most conspicuous consequence of the hard times was the falling off in the amount of money sent to Europe. The figures for both 1907 and 1908 will be found in a subsequent chapter. A final remark should be made regarding the effect of the depression upon crime in the community. Both justices of the peace agree that not only the reduction of the foreign population by the recent exodus, but inability of those who remained, on account of scanty earnings, to purchase liquor as freely as formerly had resulted in a marked decrease of the number of violations of the law, most of which are the consequence of the intemperate use of liquor.

RACE SUBSTITUTION IN THE STEEL WORKS.

The history of immigration to Community C thus reveals in common with that of immigration to other industrial centers, the gradual substitution of the races of southern and southeastern Europe for those of western and northern Europe.

An inspection of the wage scale paid by the steel company during the past eighteen years-the period marked by the coming of the immigrants in greatest numbers-reveals the fact that wages have risen and fallen in good and bad times equally for skilled labor, largely free from direct immigrant competition, and for unskilled labor, now largely performed by immigrants. It is not apparent that the coming of the immigrants has materially affected the hours of labor. With regard to wages, however, it can not be doubted that if immigration had been impossible during these years labor would have acquired a scarcity value perhaps 50 per cent in excess of its present reward; that is to say, if none but native laborers had been available it has been estimated by two officials of the company that the wages of unskilled labor at the present time would be in the neighborhood of 18 cents an hour instead of 12.

This tendency was evident for a time in 1906 and 1907, when, owing to the unusual demand for laborers to work upon the new open-hearth plant, the wages of unskilled labor rose to 13 and even to 15 cents an hour. This rate was paid by both the street-railway company and the steel company.

The Americans and Irish and many of the Germans who performed much of the unskilled labor at the steel company twenty and thirty years ago have gradually withdrawn from such pursuits until few remain. In the railroad-repair and dump departments not a single American was found employed at the time of the inquiry. Of 113 men in the general labor department only 3 were Americans. On the other hand, the preponderance of Americans, Irish, English, and Germans in the skilled occupations is still very great, as a glance at the returns for such departments as the frog and switch, bridge and construction, machine shop, and blacksmith shop will show. Not only has there been an upward movement in the scale of occupations among the English-speaking population, but there has been an outward movement as well, into skilled and semiskilled occupations outside of the steel works, such as carpentry, railroading, and work as conductor or motorman upon the street railways. The compe

a See page 646 et seq.

tition for "English-speaking" and skilled positions has been rendered more keen by the exodus of natives from the unskilled occupations; immigration thus becoming the occasion of indirect competition in the skilled occupations.

The negroes seem to have shared in this movement, for they are no longer found in any numbers in the labor gangs. Only 2 out of 113 men in the general labor force at the time of the inquiry were

negroes.

In brief, then, it may be said that the immigrant from southeastern Europe has inherited the province of unskilled labor in the steel works, and the American, Irish, German, and negro laborers have been pushed upward and outward into other and, in general, better paying occupations, in which at the present time immigrant workmen constitute an exceedingly small minority. No women find employment in the works, and the number of boys under 16 is exceedingly small and does not appear to be the result of immigration. It is probable that the number of workmen of Austrian or Italian birth or parentage will increase in the skilled occupations, and in proportion as this takes place the tendency for the children of native-born employees to seek technical, clerical, and commercial occupations, even in some cases at a financial loss, will probably be strengthened.

METHODS EMPLOYED TO SECURE IMMIGRANT LABOR.

In general the steel company has found a sufficient labor force constantly drifting to it from Europe or from other communities of this and adjacent commonwealths. Elsewhere in this report a full discussion of the interesting process by which foreign villages are in part transported and set down around American industrial centers will be found." In general it may be said that the letters and oral reports of pioneer immigrants account in the main for the stream of foreigners drawn to Community C.

The steel company usually leaves the question of securing alien labor to its foreign foremen or sends its demand for so many laborers to a boarding-house boss. In times of scarcity of labor or when the demand can not be satisfied by the local supply through the operation of the regular system the steel company sends some of its foremen to New York or Boston to secure alien labor through the agencies there. In only one instance has the steel company taken active steps to secure accessions to its labor force from outside of the city. When the new open-hearth furnace was being constructed it was found necessary to send men to New York City to employ bricklayers—30 Italians being secured-and other laborers to come to the community, the local supply of labor being inadequate to the unusual demand resulting from the extensions and improvements then in process of making.

Frequently positions are secured by the immigrants indirectly by correspondence with friends in this country. A man in Macedonia or Bulgaria may write to a friend concerning the possibility of obtaining work. The friend answers, describing the opportunities existing, and on the prospects as thus put forward a great many of all nationalities come from Europe.

a See page 593.

There is not much doubt that certain foreigners who have been in the community quite a time or who speak English act as labor agents or intermediaries between the employer and the laborer. They are not only in possession of information as to the prospects of securing work, but railroad and other contractors write them that they need so many laborers or send agents to them with a certain demand for labor. The local men speak to their countrymen and others of the work offered and persuade them to accept positions. Of course it is evident that they receive fees for this service from the contractor or the visiting labor agent. The labor which leaves to go into other work under conditions of this kind is usually furnished with transportation, and it is due to this activity of labor agents that so many of the aliens, especially the Macedonians and Italians, move out of the community to the South and other sections during the summer, to engage in railroad construction and other work.

It is also true that in many cases the labor agents referred to above, who are usually the proprietors of coffeehouses, small stores, and other businesses, are the agencies through which the immigrants are persuaded to come to this country. An alien, for example, receives a letter from one of his countrymen about the opportunities for securing work, and this letter is referred to the coffeehouse keeper or the storekeeper for his advice and for a reply. He, if conditions warrant, advises the intending immigrant to come to the United States, and, in many cases, his store or coffeehouse is given upon the steamship manifest as the point of destination of the incoming alien. In many cases the alien corresponds directly with the coffeehouse proprietor or storekeeper before he starts for the United States. When the alien arrives he is cared for by his correspondent, taken to his friends, or work is secured for him. While the evidence is not conclusive, there is little doubt that the proprietor of the coffeehouse or the store receives a fee for these services from the alien and the contractor or employer. Moreover, if the alien makes his home in the community, as the majority do, the labor agent, if engaged in any mercantile pursuit, secures the profits arising from their patronage of his establishment. In some cases the services are performed without any direct charge.

Boarding-house bosses also act in large measure as agents for the men living in the houses over which they have charge, and the men pay them a fee for finding places for them. In some cases the boarding-house boss is also a foreman. This is especially true of the Croatians who, as pointed out before, have been a long time in this country and who, consequently, have largely absorbed the positions of foreign foremen. The laborer desires to live in the house of a foreign foreman because the foreman hires the alien labor under him and controls a number of good jobs. The positions of foreman and boarding-house boss can, therefore, be profitably worked together. The foreman who is a boarding-house boss has no trouble in filling his house with good paying boarders who will pay him for jobs. The amount which is usually paid by the alien for a place is $2, although it is often as high as $5.

CHAPTER III.

ECONOMIC STATUS.

[Industrial condition abroad of members of immigrant households studied-General occupation of women at the present time, in the households studied-General occupation of males at the present time, in the households studied-Occupations in the steel industry entered by immigrants-History of the wage scale of the local steel establishment-Wage scale of the local steel establishment at the present time Weekly earnings Relation between period of residence and earning ability-Annual earnings of male heads of families studied-Annual earnings of males 18 years of age or over in the households studied-Annual family incomeWives at work-Annual earnings of females 18 years of age or over in the households studied-Relation between the earnings of husbands and the practice of wives of keeping boarders or lodgers-Sources of family income-Relative importance of different sources of family income-[Text Tables 416 to 435 and General Tables 219 to 230].

INDUSTRIAL CONDITION ABROAD OF MEMBERS OF IMMIGRANT HOUSEHOLDS STUDIED.

The following tables show the industrial condition and occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born females in the households studied who were 16 years of age or over when they arrived in this country. The exhibit is by race of individual.

TABLE 416.-Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign