Of 1,457 individuals reporting complete data for the preceding table 28.3 per cent worked twelve months, 47.2 per cent worked nine `months or over, 72.8 per cent worked six months or over, and 92.5 per cent worked three months or longer. It is seen that a slightly larger proportion of the native-born males of foreign father, and a considerably larger proportion of the native-born males of native father than of the foreign-born worked both nine months or over and twelve months. The difference in the proportion of nativeborn males of foreign father and the foreign-born who worked six months or over is greater than in other periods, while there is but a slight difference in the proportion of native-born males of native father and native-born of foreign father in this period. The difference between the proportion of native-born males of native father and native-born of foreign father and foreign-born who worked three months or over is but slight.

Of the foreign-born, the South Italians, with 45.1 per cent, show the largest proportion working twelve months, and the Germans and Servians, with only 7.9 per cent each, the smallest. The North Italians, with 62.5 per cent, have the largest proportion working nine months or longer, followed, in the order named, by the South Italians, Irish, Ruthenians, Slovaks, Croatians, all of which races show 50 per cent or more. Considerably more than 50 per cent of each race reporting worked six months or over, the North Italians, with 87.5 per cent, having the largest proportion and the Magyars, with 58.6 per cent, the smallest. Among those who worked three months or over, the North Italians, with 97.9 per cent, show the largest proportion, and the Roumanians, with 87 per cent, the smallest. All the males of foreign birth, except the Roumanians and Magyars, exhibit 90 per cent or more working three months or longer.

THE IMMIGRANT AND ORGANIZED LABOR.

The following table shows, by general nativity and race of individual, affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over in the households studied who were working for wages:

TABLE 196.-Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

TABLE 196.—Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual-Continued.

Upon information secured from a total of 1,299 males, it will be seen that only 2 per cent are affiliated with trade unions. Of the native-born males of foreign father, a proportion of 13.2 per cent is shown, as compared with 11.5 per cent of those native-born of native father, and 1.2 per cent of the foreign-born males. The native white males born of native father, those native-born of Irish father, and the foreign-born Bohemians and Moravians and Irish alone showed proportions in excess of 1 per cent of males who belong to unions, the largest proportion, or 20.9 per cent, being shown by the foreignborn Irish, as compared with 19 per cent of the foreign-born Bohemians and Moravians, 16.7 per cent of the native-born Irish, and 11.5 per cent of the native white males of native father.

REASONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS.

The rapid expansion of the industry and the inability to secure other labor are the principal reasons assigned for the employment of the more recent immigrants in this district by those in authority at the various plants. The contention of many of the older employees and representatives of labor organizations, on the other hand, is that the more recent immigrants can and will work for lower wages; also that in times of labor unrest or "strikes" they have been used as an aid to the settlement. That as a result of strikes, the more recent immigrants are largely employed to fill vacancies caused either by the older employees voluntarily leaving the service or of being dismissed by the companies is not denied; but that they are employed at lower wages is denied; and in support of this denial the officials of these plants point to the fact that, with a few individual exceptions, the more recent immigrants are employed as unskilled, or common" labor, and for such labor the same daily wage is paid each employee, regardless of race.

CHAPTER V.

INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION AND EMPLOYERS' PREFERENCES FOR RACES.

Effect of the employment of immigrants upon former employees-Effect of the employment of immigrants upon the use of machinery-Employers' opinions of recent immigrants.

EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON FORMER

EMPLOYEES.

As previously stated in this report, whites native-born of native father, together with the foreign-born English, Germans, Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, were the first employees of the various plants in this district. For some years the representatives of these races performed all labor, both skilled and unskilled, in and around each plant. As the plants expanded to meet the increased demand for their product, additional labor was required, and to meet this requirement, and for other reasons previously mentioned, the more recent immigrants were employed. This process has continued until at present the races above mentioned as unskilled, or "common" laborers, have been almost entirely supplanted by the more recent immigrant races. This displacement has not rested here, for although the progress of the more recent immigrants and their advancement into the more skilled occupations has been slow, it has nevertheless occurred. The extent of this advancement, however, varies not only as between the plants, but also as between the various races employed therein. By way of illustration, the Slovaks in plant No. 2 and the Slovaks and Croatians in plant No. 3 have shown greater progress, and consequently have been advanced over the representatives of the other more recent immigrant races. In these plants, quite a number have been made foremen of labor gangs, and a few have been made "shearmen" and "heaters."

In the coke works of plant No. 6, there are two Italian foremen. This is the only plant investigated in the district in which Italians were found employed other than as "common" laborers. In the mechanical department of plant No. 4, the Poles and Slovaks have advanced from helpers to millwrights and blacksmiths, while in the mills they are employed as levermen, boss bottom makers, assistant rollers, guide setters, and rollers. In plant No. 1, "German," "Austrian," and "Russian" Poles are working at the rolls and as heaters. The Slovaks have not advanced in this plant as have the other races; however, a majority of the engineers on the small locomotives are of this race. The progress of the Magyars at plant No. 5 is in striking contrast to the progress of the Magyars at any other plant. This is due to the fact that the Magyars were employed, in the first instance, in larger numbers at this plant than at any other, and to the further fact that

they have not been so migratory as is usually the case with the more recent immigrant races. Among the Magyars, Poles, and Slovaks there are 2 rollers, 6 mechanics, and 4 heaters. In addition to these quite a number of each of these races are employed as assistants to others holding the above-mentioned positions. One native-born Magyar is an electrician, and several are employed as bricklayers, while as assistant yardmasters, two foreign born Magyars are employed. In nearly every instance, the representatives of the more recent immigrant races who have been advanced to the more skilled occupations are those who have long been employed at the plant; therefore, while it is true that a displacement of the native Americans and other English-speaking races, also the Germans, has to some extent occurred, this displacement and corresponding advancement may be more properly considered one of individuals than of races. That the first generation of the more recent immigrant races will not become serious competitors of the native Americans, and of other English-speaking races, or the Germans, in the skilled occupations, is the opinion rather generally expressed by those in authority at the several plants in this district. This opinion is based upon two facts: (1) The inability of these people to speak English and their apparent indifference toward acquiring a knowledge of that language; and (2) the fact that they do not, upon the whole, remain sufficiently long in any one place to acquire a thorough knowledge of the work in hand. The same men hold an entirely different opinion as to the second generation. They have no hesitancy in stating that if the young men of native American or other English-speaking parents do not follow the same or similar occupations followed by those parents, the second generation of the more recent immigrants will eventually control the skilled positions in every department.

EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON THE USE OF MACHINERY.

The introduction of machinery in certain departments has had the effect of decreasing the number of employees formerly required to turn out a certain product; and, to some extent, has resulted in the payment of lower wages. In this connection, two questions are naturally suggested: (1) Has the introduction of machinery lessened the cost of turning out a certain product? and (2) have a certain number of employees, as a result of new methods, been compelled to seek employment elsewhere? One in authority at one of the oldest plants in this district states that the cost of turning out a certain product has not been lessened by the introduction of machinery; and that although wages in some departments have decreased, the work in these departments is lighter under the new than under the older methods. In reply to the second question, officials recall that after steel supplanted iron and the advantages of using the product became generally known, it was not long before there was a large demand for it in every conceivable form. This demand, they say, necessitated the addition of many new departments, requiring an additional number of men to operate them. The resultant expansion, therefore, has led to the employment of a much larger number of men than has been affected by the introduction of machinery. While fewer men are required to turn out a certain product in some depart