Japan (see below), the annual state expendi- Korean emperor, Yi Hiung, and forced his ture was said to be about 23,000,000 yen and abdication, July 20, 1907, in favor of the the revenue from Korean sources about 14,000,- emperor's son, Yi Chök, a more pliant exec000 yen, the principal items of the latter being utive. Nevertheless, the authority of the resiland tax 6,000,000, customs 3,000,000, and state dent-general in internal matters was too much industries 3,250,000. Deficits for some time restricted to an advisory capacity (the Japhad been barely covered by loans and grants anese "advice" being usually disregarded by from Japan. Korean national existence had the Korean functionaries), and on July 31, been one long story of extortions on the part of 1907, a Japanese-Korean agreement was conofficials and the gradual extermination of the cluded, whereby all administrative measures wealth-earning spirit among the people. In- and all superior official appointments were cluding Japanese subventions, etc., the budget made subject to the approval of the residentfor the fiscal year 1910 balanced at 20,915,678 general, and Japanese subjects became eligible yen. Annexation put an end to the Korean for official positions in Korea. Thereupon Japbudget, thereafter the finances being treated in anese officials were made vice-ministers in the the same document as those of Japan. The government departments (which were six in Japanese budget of December 16, 1910, for the number: Interior; Treasury; Education; Jusfiscal year 1912, showed for Korea a revenue tice; Agriculture, Commerce and Industry; and of 48,731,782 yen (24,067,583 ordinary and Imperial Household). Soon after Ito resigned 24,674,199 extraordinary) and an equal expen- (May, 1909), a further agreement (July 24) diture (27,891,437 ordinary and 20,850,345 ex- provided that Japan take over the administratraordinary). The provision of suitable in- tion of justice and the management of prisons. comes for members of the Korean royal family, Before the end of 1909 Korea had lost all the issue of bonds for 30,000,000 yen to pro- semblance of an independent monarchy. A pervide annuities for various nobles affected by the manent Japanese army was established in the annexation, a Japanese grant of 17,000,000 yen country, the police system was under Japanese for industrial and educational purposes in direction, Japanese consuls at the treaty ports Korea, and the large annual deficits that will had been replaced by residents, and the Japdoubtless continue for several years constitute anese were introducing manifold reforms, inno inconsiderable demands upon the imperial cluding the establishment of courts, the abolitreasury. tion of extortion, and the reorganization of the educational and financial systems. The resident-general, not the emperor, was the real ruler.

GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. A brief review of Korea's governmental status may serve to explain the treaty of annexation concluded at Seoul August 22, 1910, between plenipoten- After the retirement of Ito, the administiaries of the Korean and Japanese emperors, trative progress of the residency-general apwhereby the peninsula lost its last claim to peared to be not wholly satisfactory to the independence and the Japanese protectorate ad- Tokyo government. The new resident-general, ministration was succeeded by prefectural gov- Viscount Sone Arasuke, who followed Ito in ernment. The dynasty which came to an end the summer of 1909, suffered extreme ill health in 1910 dates its existence from 1392, but China and in May, 1910, resigned his post, being sucwas recognized as suzerain prior to 1895. In ceeded by the Japanese minister of war, GenMay of that year, by the treaty of Shimonoseki, eral Viscount Terauchi Masakata, with Yamawhich concluded the Chino-Japanese war, China gata Isaburo as vice-resident-general. Sone renounced her claims, and Japanese influence in died September 13, 1910. Prince Ito was mur Korea became manifest. Japanese interests dered October 26, 1909, by a native Korean, who developed rapidly, and it was mainly to protect was subsequently executed. them against Russian encroachment that the On July 22, 1910, a treaty of annexation war with Russia was precipitated. On Feb (which was preceded by a remarkable document ruary 23, 1904, just after the war began, Japan in which the Korean emperor, through Japanese concluded with Korea a treaty whereby the finesse, prayed for annexation), was signed by former guaranteed the independence and terri- Viscount Terauchi and Yi Wan Yong, the torial integrity of Korea and the latter agreed Korean minister president of state, and was to adopt Japanese advice in regard to adminis- promulgated and took effect on August 29. The trative reforms. Then followed the Anglo- treaty stipulated the complete and permanent Japanese agreement of August 12, 1905, and cession to the Emperor of Japan of all rights of the Russo-Japanese peace treaty of September sovereignty over the whole of Korea, the con5, 1905, both of which recognized Japan's para- ferring of appropriate titles on members of the mount interests in Korea. The Japanese gov- Korean imperial house and sufficient annual ernment presently tightened its hold on the grants for their proper maintenance, the conpeninsula through its treaty with the Korean ferring of peerages and monetary grants upon government, Nov. 17, 1905, from which officially certain Koreans deserving special recognition, dates the protectorate. This treaty dropped and, in Japan's administration of Korea, full the guaranty of Korean independence, substituting therefor the much narrower undertaking to maintain the security and respect the dignity of the Korean imperial house. The treaty moreover, gave to the Japanese government the control of Korean foreign relations and provided that a Japanese resident-general be stationed at Seoul. The first resident-general was the eminent constructive statesman, the late Prince (then Marquis) Ito Hirobumi, who took up his duties March 2, 1906. Ito found himself hampered by the obstructionist tactics of the

protection to person and property and the employment in the public service, so far as circumstances might permit, of duly qualified and loyal Koreans. Viscount Terauchi and Mr. Yamagata were appointed governor-general and vicegovernor-general respectively. Upon annexation, certain determinations of the Japanese government were announced by the governorgeneral as follows: That the name of Korea hereafter be Cho-sen, the ancient name of the kingdom; that the governor-general of Cho-sen have the same administrative and legislative func

tions as the governor-general of Formosa; that nearly 400,000 were Chinese. Japanese setthe present customs dues remain unaltered for tlers in 1910 numbered over 32,000, of whom ten years, but be called transit dues of entry about two-thirds were in the Dairen district. and transit dues of exit; that amnesty be Dairen (formerly Dalny) had in 1909 41,333 granted to political prisoners and those whose inhabitants and Port Arthur (Ryojun) 15,195. offenses deserve extenuation; that there be a Dairen is the chief port; on July 1, 1910, the 20 per cent. remission of taxes for 1910 and western harbor of Port Arthur was opened to complete remission of unpaid taxes of former navigation. Total imports and exports in 1909 years; that bonds be issued to the extent of were valued at 24,549,283 and 42,812,302 yen 30,000,000 yen to provide the grants, mentioned respectively, the trade being chiefly with Japan. above, to certain Koreans; that 17,000,000 yen The railway, which connects Port Arthur and be advanced by the Japanese treasury for in- Dairen with Mukden and the Chinese Eastern dustrial and educational purposes in Cho-sen; Railway system, has a length of about 80 miles that consular jurisdiction (extraterritoriality) within Kwantung. The budget for 1909-10 balin Cho-sen be abolished; that, as treaties be- anced at 4,879,489 yen; for 1910-11, 4,867,988; tween Korea and foreign Powers lapsed upon for 1911-12, 4,984,926; of the latter figure, the annexation, Japanese treaties, so far as ap- ordinary revenue and ordinary expenditure plicable, be extended to Cho-sen; that religious were 1,714,186 and 3,453,007 yen respectively. freedom prevail; and that laws existing at the Deficits are covered by Japan. The governortime of annexation continue until amended. general in 1910 was General Viscount Oshima. At the end of September, thirteen prefectural LABOR. In addition to this article, matter governors were appointed for the new province, relating to various aspects of the labor movecomprising seven Japanese and six Koreans. ment and labor problems will be found under The new style of the deposed emperor became the following heads: ARBITRATION AND CONShotoku-kyu Ri O Denka (His Imperial High- CILIATION, INDUSTRIAL; CHILD LABOR; BOYness Prince Ri of the Shotoku Palace) and of coTT; AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOB; EMhis father, Tokuju-kyu Ri Tai O Denka (His Imperial Highness Great Prince Ri of the Tokuju Palace); in each case Ri is the Japanese form of the Korean family name Yi. KOSSEL, ALBRECHT. A German physiologist, awarded the Nobel prize for medicine in 1910. He was born at Rostock, Germany, in 1853, and studied at Strassburg and Rostock, and after teaching in the universities of Strassburg and Berlin became professor of physiology at Marburg in 1895. In 1901 he was called to the same chair at Heidelberg. He became well known by his researches in physiological chemistry and among his works may be mentioned: Unt ersuchungen über die Nukleine und ihre spaltung sprodukte (Strassburg 1881); Die Gewebe menschlichen Körpers und ihre mikroskopische Untersuchung (with Behrens and Schiefferdecker, Brunswick, 1889-91); Leitfaden für medizinisch-chemische Kurse (Berlin, 1904), and Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschrift für physiologische

Chemie.

KREISLER, FRITZ. See MUSIC. KROPOTKIN, Prince. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, History.

KRYPTON. See ATOMIC WEIGHTS. KUMM, KARL. See EXPLORATION. KURDISTAN. See PERSIA, KWANG-CHOW-WAN. A territory on the Chinese coast leased to France (1898) for 99 years. Area, 386 square miles (land area, about 190); population (1906), 177,097. Imports and exports (1906), 2,359,248 and 1,911,835 dollars respectively (1 dollar about 50 cents). The port is free. The administratorin-chief (1910, M. Salabelle) is subject to the control of the governor-general of French IndoChina.

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PLOYERS' LIABILITY; INJUNCTION; LABOR ExCHANGES; LABOR LEGISLATION; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OLD AGE PENSIONS; STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS; TRADE UNIONS; UNEMPLOYMENT; WOMEN IN INDUSTRY; and WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. All of these and the cross references found in them should be consulted for a complete survey of the developments affecting labor during the year.

STEEL INDUSTRY CONDITIONS. Labor conditions in the steel industry in the Pittsburg region received considerable attention during the year. This was particularly due to the Pittsburg Survey, which had revealed most deplorable conditions of overwork among the steel workers, and in part to labor disturbances and to the activities of the American Federation of Labor. A strike of the workers at South Bethlehem led to an investigation by the Department of Commerce and Labor at the special request of Congress. It was found that twenty-five per cent. of the 9184 workers were employed twelve hours a day for seven days per week; that fifty-one per cent. worked twelve hours for six days; that about twenty-nine per cent. earned only twelve and one-half cents per hour; and that forty-six per cent. received less than sixteen cents per hour. There was a complete lack of organization among the workers. The strike, which was led by the skilled workers who feared they might lose their 60-hour week, was attended by no disturbances for three weeks; but as a result of the introduction of State constabulary and strike breakers there was a great deal of rioting, many assaults and some bloodshed.

The government report called out the statement by President Charles M. Schwab of the KWANTUNG, or KWANTO. A Japanese Bethlehem Steel Company, that low wages and dependency, occupying the southern part of the long hours were not peculiar to his company. Liaotung Peninsula (Manchuria), leased March Private investigation showed that the 7-day week 27, 1898, by China to Russia for 25 years; the and 12-hour day were quite general in the steel territory was held by Japan at the end of the industry, though no other centre paid wages beRusso-Japanese war, and was leased by China low 162 cents per hour. In March and April to Japan under the treaty of December 22, the United States Steel Corporation ordered a 1905, which also conceded to Japan the control reduction of Sunday work, increased wages, and of the South Manchurian Railway to Chang- inaugurated a system of compensation for inchun (see MANCHURIA). Area, 1221 square juries. (See EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY.) Nevermiles; population (1909), 445,414, of whom theless the American Federation of Labor (q.

LABOR

v.) continued its efforts for better conditions in the steel industry.

Early in September C. W. Post of Battle Creek, Michigan, a minority stockholder of the STATE REGULATION OF RAILWAY EMPLOY- Buck's Company, applied to the Circuit Court MENT. A New York law of 1907 established an of St. Louis for an injunction restraining the eight-hour day for railway telegraphers. In company and the Federation from carrying out 1908 the attorney-general brought suit against the closed shop agreement. This injunction was the Erie Railway for violation. The case denied by Judge McPherson mainly on the finally reached the New York Court of ground that the persons against whom the inAppeals which in April, 1910, affirmed the junction was sought had not been served with constitutionality of the law. It held it to notices of the hearing. At the same time the be well within the powers of the police legisla- court said that every employer of labor has the tion and not in conflict with the Federal right to determine for himself whether his busistatute of 1907 establishing a nine-hour day for ness shall be operated as a closed or an open such workers. The law was held to be merely shop; "whether it is for the better to have a a supplement of the Federal law setting a closed shop or an open shop, men differ." At higher standard. The case was to be appealed the same time Mr. Post began suit in the same to the United States Supreme Court. It was of Circuit Court against the officers of the considerable importance because decisions of Federation, some fifty other officers of internathe highest courts of Arkansas, Missouri, Mon- tional, State and local unions, and their ortana and Wisconsin had held similar State laws ganizations, together jointly with the Buck's unconstitutional because of the extent of the Stove and Range Co., to recover damages as a Federal statute. result of the historic boycott. This suit alleged PUBLIC CONTRACTS IN NEW YORK. In New damages of $250,000, and under section 2 of the York State much discussion was aroused by the Sherman Anti-Trust law sought to collect investigation into the conditions of the Italian threefold this amount as legal damages. The and other laborers employed on the construc- defendants appeared in court October 3 to join tion of the Ashokan Dam and the Catskill the issue. The legal basis for this suit was Aqueduct for New York City and the Barge the decision recently handed down in the HatCanal for New York State. While conditions ters' Case (see BOYCOTT). The essential differwere found to be better on the city contracts ence was that in this case the company boythan on those of the State, yet, in both, the cotted was made a co-defendant with the boylaborers were herded together in insanitary huts; many cooked their own food; and most of them were exploited by ignorant and avaricious padrones. While the city was taking active measures to eliminate the padrones, to standardize boarding and housing conditions, to provide schooling for the children of the workers and for the workers themselves, the State showed little concern for the human element in its great undertaking. The creation in the State Labor Department of the Bureau of Industries and Immigration with power to inspect labor camps and the conditions of employment of foreigners will establish better conditions for alien labor. This Bureau is expected to learn of demands for such labor and to aid it in finding suitable jobs.

cotting unions. The defendants stated that in their opinion the court would hold that Mr. Post as a small stockholder should not be allowed to interfere with the policy of his company, so long as this has been free from fraud and deception.

ANNUAL CONVENTION. The thirtieth annual convention of the Federation was held at St. Louis, November 14 to 26. Considerable discussion was given to the use of the boycott, especially the proper occasions, the extent to which local disputes should be supported by general union action, and the authority to control. The Executive Council of the Federation was given extensive authority over unfair lists. The new Railroad Employes Department and the Union Label Trades Department reported excellent progress. This latter association had begun the organization of union label leagues among women workers. It reported over forty international unions, having in all 500,000 members, and issuing union labels, store cards, and buttons.

LABOR, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF. BOYCOTT AND CONTEMPT CASES. The famous cases grow ing out of the injunction secured by the Buck's Stove and Range Co. in restraint of a boycott carried on by the Federation was not concluded at the end of the year. The case growing out of the modification of the original injunction CONFLICT WITH STEEL CORPORATIONS. Followhad been appealed to the United States Su- ing the instructions of a conference called by the preme Court by both parties; the case which Federation at Pittsburg in December, 1909, a resulted in the sentence of imprisonment committee there appointed waited upon Presi against the leading officials of the Federation dent Taft and various State governors in Janwas likewise appealed in January, 1910; these uary with charges against the United States two cases were merged in one appeal to come Steel Corporation. The Corporation was debefore that Court on October 11. On that date clared to be an illegal combination in restraint hearing was postponed to January 16, 1911. of trade; and was charged with favoring cheap Meanwhile an agreement had been entered into alien labor, with exploiting its workers, and between the Buck's Stove and Range Co. and with reckless sacrifice of human life. An inthe American Federation of Labor and affiliated vestigation was requested. Congress ordered an organizations, thus ending the long and bitter investigation into labor conditions at Bethleindustrial struggle. This agreement provided hem following the strike there (see STRIKES for the closed shop. It was stated by leaders AND LOCKOUTS). Meanwhile the organizers of of the Federation that this agreement would the Federation were combining the workers in have no effect on the appeal before the Supreme the iron and steel industries under the AmalgaCourt, but others held that since the real dispute had been settled and only moot questions remained the Court would not devote its time to their consideration.

mated Iron, Steel, and Tin Plate Workers' Association. An appeal to carry forward this plan and to finance a trade war with the iron and steel trade employers was made in January,