AMADOR

and graduated in 1878 from the medical department of the University of New York. After serving for some time as an assistant in the charity hospital on Blackwell's Island, New York City, he became professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery in the University of Cartagena. He was later Consul-General of Colombia in Holland and Belgium, and afterwards Vice-Consul of the United States in Colombia. In 1893 he settled in Brooklyn, N. Y., where he had an extensive medical practice.

AMBASSADORS. See UNITED STATES, paragraph Diplomatic Service.

AMBROSE CHANNEL. See HARBORs. AMENDMENT TO FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. See TAXATION.

AMERICA, LATIN. See PAN-AMERICAN UNION and articles on Central and South American countries.

AMERICAN ANTI-BOYCOTT ASSOCIATION. See BOYCOTT.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES. The associations and societies whose official title begins with the word American will be found under the titles of the subjects in which they are interested. For example, for the American Academy of Political and Social Science, see POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN ACAD

EMY OF.

AMERICAN CANAL. See CANALS. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CRIMINAL LAW AND CRIMINOLOGY. See PENOLOGY. AMERICAN PRISON ASSOCIATION. See PENOLOGY.

AMERICAN SUGAR REFINING CO. See

TRUSTS.

AMES, E. S. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, section Philosophy and Religion.

AMES, JAMES BARR. An American lawyer and educator, died January 8, 1910. He was born in Boston, Mass., in 1846, and graduated from Harvard College in 1868 and from the Harvard Law School in 1872. In 1868-9 he taught in a private school in Boston and in 1871-2 acted as tutor in French and German at Harvard College. In the following year he acted as instructor in history in the same institution. From 1873 to 1877 he was associate professor of law at Harvard and in the latter year was made professor of law. In 1895 he was appointed Dean of the Harvard Law School. He compiled collections of cases on torts, pleading, bills and notes and other legal subjects, and was the author of numerous articles in the Harvard Law Review and other reviews.

ANESTHESIA

gaged in the practice of medicine in Boston. He was widely known and quoted as a writer on medical themes, and was the author of several works on physiology and therapeutics.

AMPHIBOLE ASBESTOS. See ASBESTOS. AMUNDSEN'S EXPEDITION. See POLAR

RESEARCH.

ANESTHESIA. GENERAL ANESTHESIA: NEW METHODS. Several new methods of inducing general anesthesia were proposed during 1910, having for their object an increase in the safety of the procedure and a diminution of the amount of anaesthetic used. Franke applied the Esmarch bandage to the extremities, either the thighs or arms, or both, preliminary to giving chloroform. By this method a considerable portion of the blood is shut off from the influence of the anesthetic, with the result, he claims, that much smaller amounts were necessary to induce and maintain sleep than by the ordinary methods. The patients were anesthetized without any phase of agitation, respirations were regular and there was no cyanosis, salivation nor vomiting. The pulse was somewhat disturbed on removing the bandages. The return of the blood, laden with carbon dioxide, acted as a stimulant to respiration, and the patient returned to consciousness in less than ten minutes after suspension of the anesthetic. It is necessary that the limbs be free from varicose veins and eczema. The method is not entirely without the possibility of unpleasant complications. Seven out of seventy-five cases anesthetized in this way developed thrombosis of the veins of the bandaged limbs, in the experience of Gräfenberg.

Chloroform was administered intravenously by Giani at Durante's clinic in Rome. The injection was made into the saphenous vein (in the thigh). Normal salt solution, saturated with chloroform, was used. Eleven hundred c.c., representing 6.6 grams of anæsthetic, were injected in one case. The anesthesia lasted forty minutes, and seven minutes after the cessation of the infusion the patient awakened. In another case, 1500 c.c., containing about 9 grams of chloroform, were infused during the seventyfive minutes required for the operation. This patient roused in five minutes.

SPINAL ANESTHESIA. This method continued to excite comment, mostly unfavorable, during the past year. Hohmeier and König, for instance, examined the records of 2400 cases of spinal anesthesia in 41 well-known institutions. They found that the procedure was responsible for 12 deaths, and that a rather large proportion of the patients suffer, sometimes years later, to an unusual extent from paræsthesias, neuralgia, weakness, headache or vertigo. That grave injury to the central nervous system may be done seems to be settled.

Spiller and Leopold studied the effects of stovain on the spinal cord and the spinal nerve roots, when injected into the medullary canal, as in spinal anesthesia. Dogs were used in the experiments. They determined that the paralysis occurring after stovain anesthesia was of the motor type, the anterior spinal nerve roots being affected. Symptoms of ataxia, impaired sensation, and loss of tendon reflexes supervened and became permanent after the third injection. Microscopical study of the spinal tissues showed that a true degeneration of the anterior nerve roots took place, together with certain portions of the cord itself. While the authors would not apply their findings too strictly to man, yet their

experiments indicate that repeated injections of stovain into the same individual might be attended with considerable risk.

ELECTRIC ANESTHESIA. The induction of general anesthesia by means of electric currents still remains a fascinating problem. Tait and Ross, of the University of California Hospital, found that they could produce a satisfactory anæsthesia in certain of the lower animals, but that the technical difficulties were many. In dogs, they were able to induce a general loss of sensation without loss of consciousness. These experimenters tried the current on themselves and on others, but in twenty-four trials on human beings they were unable to obtain any phenomena at all resembling sleep. Regional anesthesia, however, by means of electricity, has proved practicable. Dr. Louise G. Robinovitch produced total anesthesia of the lower extremities in an individual in whom it was necessary to amputate the toes for gangrene. She used a storage battery. Electrodes were placed over the nerves supplying the tissues to be anesthetized. The negative electrode was applied over the base of the spine (sacrum) and three positive electrodes were placed respectively over the anterior crural, anterior tibial and posterior crural nerves. Two meters, one for voltage and one for amperage, were employed. The meters registered 54 volts and 4 milliamperes respectively, and the current was interrupted 6000 to 7000 times per minute. Anæsthesia was complete at the moment of applying the current, and lasted

45 minutes.

ANDREW, A. PIATT. See CENTRAL BANK. ANDREWS, WESLEY R. An American politician, died February 5, 1910. He was born in Warren county, Pa., in 1837. In the campaign of 1856, before he had reached his majority, he organized the John C. Frémont Marching Club. At that time he was living in Jamestown, N. Y. He served during the Civil War in a New York regiment, and at its close he engaged in business in New York City. Removing to Meadville, Pa., he established the Meadville Tribune-Republican. He became affiliated with Matthew S. Quay, and when the latter was elected chairman of the Republican State Committee, he selected Mr. Andrews as the committee's secretary. In 1905 he was elected chairman of this committee and held that position up to the time of his death. He had great ability as a political organizer and under his control the Pennsylvania State organization conducted its successful campaigns.

ANDRUS, ELIAS VAN A. See NECROLOGY. ANGLICAN CHURCH. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

ANGLO-AMERICAN CHESS MATCH.

See CHESS.

ANGOLA. A Portuguese colony in western Africa. It has an estimated area of 500,000 square miles, and is divided into six districts: Congo, Loanda, Benguella, Mossámedes, Huilla, and Lunda. The population is estimated at from three to four millions. Capital, St. Paul de Loanda; other important towns, Cabinda, Ambriz, Novo Redondo, Benguella, Mossámedes, and Port Alexander. There are about 2400 pupils in the several schools, and various missions have been established. Coffee, rubber (in diminishing quantities), wax, sugar, vegetable oils, cocoanuts, ivory, oxen, and fish are the principal products. Malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, salt, and gold are found; and asphalt is

worked by a British syndicate. Imports (chiefly textiles) for 1908 were valued (exclusive of Congo) at 5,137,219 milreis (1 milreis = $1.08); exports, 3,730,463 milreis. On March 31, 1909, the total length of railways open for traffic was 510 miles; 127 miles of the new line from Lobito Bay to connect with the Central African system have been completed. In 1907 there were 1940 miles of telegraph lines, 63 offices and 122 postoffices. In 1908 there entered at the various ports 1741 vessels of 1,005,004 tons. The revenue and expenditure for 1909-10 were estimated at 2,528,609 and 3,678,344 milreis respectively. The colony is under a Governor-General (1910, Lieutenant-Colonel Alves Roçadas). ANKYLOSTOMIASIS. See HOOKWORM.

DISEASE.

six

are

ANNAM. A French protectorate in French Indo-China (q. v.). Area, 61,718 square miles. Estimated population (Annamites in the towns and coast regions, Moïs in the hills) in 1909, 7,994,425. The capital is Hué, with 65,000 inhabitants. Confucianism is the popular religion; there are some Buddhists, and 420,000 Roman Catholics. There were (1909) schools for Europeans (with 86 pupils), 26 official (1568) and 20 other (875) Franco-Annamite schools, and 90 official native schools (14,653). Paddy, rice, corn, cotton, coffee, timber, rubber, cardamoms, betel, tobacco, etc., grown; the mines produce kaolin, coal, lead, zinc, duced. The trade is included with that of copper, iron, gold and silver. Raw silk is proFrench Indo-China (q. v.). In 1910 there were in operation 511 kilometers of railway. Telegraphs and cables connect with Saigon and Hanoi. The annual budget balances at about 3,000,000 dollars. Annam has no debt. The collective provincial budgets balance at about 700,000 dollars annually. The king, Duy-Tan (born 1899; succeeded September 9, 1907) is under the control of a council of regency. French resident-superior (1910), J. H. Groleau.

ANNIVERSARIES. See EXPOSITIONS and UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.

ANOPHORITE. See MINERALOGY. ANTARCTICA. See POLAR RESEARCH. ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. See POLAR RESEARCH.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Anthropological activity during 1910 is characterized by the peaceful continuation of the intensive specialist studies begun in previous years. In physical anthropology there have been no discoveries of early human remains comparable to those of the past two years, but many theoretical discussions of the significance of these finds from an evolutionary point of view.

OPPOSING SCHOOLS. In ethnology, aside from the ever increasing contributions to descriptive ethnography, there continues the struggle between the classical English school, which insists on the formulation of general laws of cultural development and what might be called the "historical" school of American and German ethnologists, who conceive the development of culture as a series of unique historical happenings which must be studied with regard to their specific settings and are not amenable to generalized treatment. While the latter point of view seems dominant among professional students of ethnology, precisely the reverse holds true for the numerous sociologists, philosophers, economists and historians nowadays more or less intensively

manian, while in most measurements nearer to extinct human forms than other recent varieties, nevertheless falls well within the range of variation of Homo sapiens, being immeasurably superior to the Spy-Neanderthal type. The very high rank given to the Cannstadt skull according to these recent measurements is wholly in accord with the purely morphological estimate of these remains by Schwalbe and other authorities. Pithecanthropus erectus appears to be, as has also been previously contended, a transitional form distinctly nearer the anthropoid apes than to the Neanderthal type.

AMERICAN LANGUAGES. Parts of the first volume of the Handbook of American Languages have at last been issued from the government press. The Introduction by the editor, Professor Franz Boas, contains some important observations on the philosophy of language and the relation of linguistics to ethnology. While classifications of mankind have hitherto attempted to take into account physical, cultural and linguistic features at the same time, the work of the past decades has made it clear that such mixed classifications are futile. Race, language and culture develop independently of one another and a useful classification of mankind can be made only by each of these factors taken singly. Many quasi-problems disappear when this fact is fully understood; thus, the so-called Aryan question could never have been broached had the disputants recognized that there is no necessary correlation between race, speech, and culture. Language serves to express an infinitude of concrete experiences, but with a limited number of phonetic complexes. That is to say, it economizes the effort required in speech communication by classifying experiences from certain points of view. The categories thus established depend largely on the special interests of each people, and are accordingly distinctive of the several languages, or linguistic families. While in written languages the single word seems a sufficiently definite unit of speech, this does not hold for the languages of uncivilized tribes, where the interpretation of a sound, or series of sounds, as a distinct word frequently depends merely on its phonetic strength. The line between stem and affix is also often hard to draw; thus, in Algonkin dialects almost all verbs consist of several elements in conjunction, each in a definite position, but each group so numerous that it would be arbitrary to consider the one as stems and the other as affixes. In the matter of grammatical categories, it is interesting to note that modes of classification are quite different in North American languages from those employed in Indo-European speech. Thus, the Eskimo do not classify their nouns at all, while the Algonkin classify them not on the basis of sex gender, but as names of animate or inanimate objects, respectively. The idea of number is frequently not clearly expressed, though in some cases there is not only a plural, but also a dual, and even trial, number. Nominal cases are very rare, though case-relationship is sometimes expressed in the pronoun. Verbal categories also may differ widely in Indian tongues from those familiar to the student of European languages; sometimes there is but a single mood or tense, on the other hand there occur in other languages delicate differentiations in the expression of time and mode, such as tenses denoting the beginning or duration of an act. It has often been contended that Indians (and other

primitive peoples) are unable to form abstract concepts because of the lack of abstract terms in their speech. Boas shows that this conclusion is fallacious, inasmuch as Indians readily form abstract ideas and corresponding terms when the necessity arises; their apparent rarity is due to the fact that in ordinary Indian life such terms are not required. The relation of linguistic to other ethnological phenomena is of the greatest importance. Boas finds that both have developed unconsciously, but differ in that the categories of language hardly ever rise into the consciousness of the speakers while religious and social phenomena become the subject of conscious reflexion and interpretation. American languages have usually been defined as polysynthetic, i. e., as uniting by grammatical processes a large number of distinct ideas into a single word, and also as incorporating the object in the verb. Boas shows that the latter tendency is but weakly developed in the majority of North American languages, while polysynthesis is indeed very highly developed in Eskimo and Tsimshian speech, but is in other stocks reduced to a minimum. However, other traits appear, which, while not absolutely universal, nevertheless hold for many of the Indian linguistic families. Most important among these is the tendency to divide verbs into an active and a neutral group, these being distinguished by association with distinct sets of pronouns.

BLACKFOOT CULTURE. Wissler has taken up the question of the early habitat of the Blackfoot and the problems connected with their material culture. Contrary to Grinnell, he finds no evidence that the Blackfoot ever occupied other territory than their historic habitat in the northwesternmost part of the Plains area. Culturally, there is little in the material side of Blackfoot life to differentiate them from their neighbors of the Plains. Thus, nearly all their food habits are shared by the tribes of the Saskatchewan and Upper Missouri; it is only in a few utensil forms that they evince some individuality, while owing to their marginal position they have adopted some culinary methods from the inhabitants of the Plateau region. In dressing skins the Blackfoot likewise fall in line with other buffalo-hunting peoples, using such typical implements as the adze-shaped scraper and rubbing skins over twisted cords in the way peculiar to this geographical group. In transportation the Blackfoot use two types of travois, both the one with a netted hoop employed by the Dakota and Assiniboine, and the form with a rectangular frame found among the Plains Cree, Gros Ventre, Arapaho and Sarcee. The form of their cradles allies the Blackfoot with their western neighbors, the Shoshone and Nez Percé. The Blackfoot resemble the Crow, Hidatsa, Sarcee, and Comanche in erecting their lodges on a foundation of four poles, while the other Plains tribes use three. A comparative discussion of Blackfoot clothing leads to the interesting result that the men's shirt was not used as an everyday garment throughout the Plains area, though as a dress shirt for gala occasions its use was general during the historic period. The wearing of shirts for ordinary costume occurs among the northwestern Plains tribes, some Shoshone and Salish, as well as among the Cree and eastern Dene, so that this custom may be reasonably regarded as a northern characteristic. Like several other tribes of the Plains, the Blackfoot employed a sinew-backed bow. The latter, however, is dis