of the University of Havana, attracted attention as their existence within the island had not, hitherto, been definitely established. Apart from its paleontological interest the discovery has importance in that it may be considered as evidence of a recent connection between the West Indies and the continent. Other vertebrate remains were recently found on the island of St. Martin. PETROGRAPHY. Experiments on the flow of rocks under pressure were described by Adams and Coker. It is a matter of common observation that the older rocks, which sometime have been deeply buried in the earth and there subjected to powerful stresses, have been contorted and folded as if they were plastic substances like clay or wax. The manner in which this deformation takes place has not been clearly understood. Some geologists have held that there is really a molecular flowage of material, the rigidity of the rocks being overcome by the intense pressure. Others have attributed the deformation to effects of crushing followed by a recementation of the fragments from mineral matter deposited by underground waters, or else to a continuous process of solution and redeposition of the rock minerals. The agencies of heat and water have usually been considered essential in the development of such secondary structures. In the present experiments, which were made on an elaborate scale under the aid of the Carnegie Institution, it was found that structures identical with those found in nature could be reproduced by artificial means, and not only with the softer rocks like marble and limestone, but with granite, diabase and other very hard kinds. Pressures ranging from 120,000 to 300,000 pounds per square inch were employed under different conditions of temperature, moisture and time. The rocks were made to flow so as to show a marked foliation, and the resultant products still retained a very considerable part of their original strength. It was found that the presence of water was not essential to the process, and in fact under most conditions had very little influence. Heat, however, tended to facilitate deformation and the product was relatively stronger than if the deformation had been carried out at ordinary temperatures. The element of time also exercised an influence, the product showing a gain of strength with slow compression as compared with rapid compression.

R. T. Chamberlin determined the nature and relative proportions of the different gases occluded in rocks. It was found that rocks characterised by high percentages of iron and magnesian minerals contained the most gas. The author of the paper inclined to the view held by Suess that the water and gases found in igneous rocks have been brought up from the earth's interior and are an integral part of the magma.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. In this department the most important contribution for the year, undoubtedly, was The Iron Ore Resources of the World already mentioned as one of the works initiated by the Stockholm Geological Congress. The results of the investigation, in which over 50 leading authorities participated, were published in two volumes of text and one of maps, under the editorship of J. G. Andersson. The description of the ore occurrences makes the work of great value to the geologist for comparative study, and the information on the volume and the character of the deposits will be welcomed as the first serious attempt to formulate an

estimate of the supplies of iron ore available for our future industrial needs. The actual known reserves of ore for all the different countries are estimated at 22,408 millions of metric tons, which will be exhausted in less than two centuries at the present rate of consumption or in 60 years if the consumption should continue to increase in the ratio of the past. There are potential reserves of ore, not now available but which may become so under changed conditions, sufficient to supply the requirements for a much longer time.

R. A. F. Penrose contributed some interesting data on the occurrence and causes of ore shoots, by which name it is customary to designate the richer parts of metalliferous veins or other mineral deposits. These localized aggregations of ore are due to various chemical and physical influences, acting singly or in combination. Segregation of the heavier components during the cooling of a magma; the occurrence of local vents, like those of fumaroles and hot springs; structural features of the wall rocks; the nature of the country rock itself; and secondary alteration are some of the causes assigned in the paper.

The theory of secondary enrichment of ore deposits was the subject of an extended discussion by American geologists which served to place it on a firm basis as well as to facilitate its application. The theory, it may be explained, refers to the downward migration of the metallic constituents of an ore body after their original deposition. It was shown that the process had been effective in many of the copper deposits of the West, copper minerals being especially prone to such migration owing to their easy solubility in the presence of ground waters. To this agency may be ascribed the very rich accumulations of copper ores, like those of Butte, that are not infrequently encountered below a zone of lean or almost barren material. Secondary enrichment would seem to be less effective in the case of the more insoluble minerals, like gold, silver and lead, though some of the writers believed its influence to be recognizable in some instances.

AGE OF THE EARTH. In an important contribution to the subject of the age of the earth, G. F. Becker reviewed the results and methods of Kelvin, Joly and others who have attacked the problem and gave some new determinations based on data more reliable than those hitherto available. As a starting point for calculation, the beginning of the earth has been assumed usually at the time when it had so far cooled as to permit the accumulation of water on its surface, in the form of permanent oceans. The problem then may be resolved into a calculation of the age of the ocean. One method of attack is that followed by Joly, who computed the quantity of sodium present in sea water and the amount annually contributed by rivers; the former total divided by the latter gave a value of 97,600,000 years as the probable age of the ocean. Becker would modify the method on the ground that the accumulation of sodium was probably more rapid in early ages, when larger areas of feldspathic rocks were exposed to atmospheric denudation, than at present. Thus, assuming that the accumulation is an asymptotic process, a modified value of 74,000,000 years is deduced for the maximum age of the ocean. The weak point in this method lies in the possibility that the primitive ocean was salt, or that it contained continents within its basin; either pos

GEOLOGY

sibility would affect the accuracy of a minimum value, though it would not alter that given for a maximum. If neither possibility was realized, the minimum would be about 46,000,000 years. The method of estimation based on the progress of refrigeration of the earth from a molten state, as developed by Lord Kelvin, may be modified in the light of recent work on isostatic compensation, and on that basis Becker finds a maximum of 75,000,000 years and a minimum of 55,000,000 years. Both methods thus yield results which are close enough to be mutually confirmatory. A third means of attack is based on the time required for the deposition of the stratified rocks. Walcott has placed the opening of the Cambrian period at 27,640,000 years ago; Becker would assign to Pre-Cambrian time a similar order of magnitude, making the total between 50,000,000 and 65,000,000 years. The results obtained by the different methods converge toward a value of about 60,000,000 years, which may be accepted as the nearest approximation possible with the data at hand.

GEORGE V. King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of all the British Dominions beyond the seas, Emperor of India, succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, King Edward VII, May 6, 1910. He was born on July 3, 1865, the second son of King Edward. He entered the direct line of succession only after the death of his elder brother, the Duke of Clarence, in 1892. He was baptized with the names of George Frederick Ernest Albert. With his elder brother, the Duke of Clarence, he entered the navy as a cadet in 1877, and after spending two years in the training ship Britannia started for a three years' voyage around the world on board the Bacchante. He was made a midshipman on the Canada in 1883. This vessel was then on the North American and West Indian stations. In 1885 he became a lieutenant, and in 1890 was given a separate command on the gunboat Thrush on the North American Station. In 1891 he was made commander. In the following year, as noted above, through the death of his elder brother, he became heir to the throne and took his seat in the House of Lords as the Duke of York. In the same year he took command of the Melampus for the naval manœuvres. In May, 1893, his engagement to the Princess Victoria Mary of Teck was announced. This Princess had previously been the fiancée of the Duke of Clarence. The marriage was celebrated at St. James's Palace on July 6, 1893. During 1898 the Prince for some time was in command of the battleship Crescent attached to the Channel Squadron. He was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral in 1901 and was appointed Colonel-in-chief of the Royal marine forces. On the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 he succeeded his father as the Duke of Cornwall. In 1901 he undertook, as Duke of Cornwall and York, the great Imperial Mission through which he became widely known to his subjects in the Over Seas dominions of the Crown. He visited Australia where he opened the first Parliament of the Commonwealth and then went to New Zealand and finally to Canada and Newfoundland. On November 9, 1901, the birthday of King Edward, he was given the title of Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. On the return of the Prince from his tour to Australia and Canada, he was entertained by the London Corporation at the Guildhall, December 5, 1901. On this occasion he delivered a memor

able speech beginning with the phrase "Wake up, England." In June, 1902, he was promoted to the rank of general. On October 19, 1905, in company with the Princess of Wales, he left London for a visit to India and landed at Bombay on November 9. This tour was a great success and everywhere he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. At Calcutta he laid the foundation stone of the Victoria Memorial Hall and took part in many other important ceremonies in different parts of India. On the return home the Prince paid a visit to the Khedive of Egypt at Cairo. On his arrival in England the Prince received a civic welcome at the Mansion House where he said in a speech of unusual length and interest that "the task of governing India would be made easier if we, on our part, infuse into it a wider element of sympathy." The King, as Prince of Wales, was not so well known as his father when he occupied the same position. This was largely due to his temperament which inclined him to a more serious mode of life. It was well known, however, that he was a student of public affairs and had a deep interest in the welfare of the empire.

The King's marriage was a happy one and his chief enjoyment has been in the retirement of his family. There were born to the King and Queen five sons and one daughter: Prince Edward Albert, born June 23, 1894, now heirapparent; Prince Albert Frederick, born 1895; Princess Victoria Alexandra, born 1897; Prince Henry, born 1900; Prince George, born 1902; and Prince John, born 1905. For details of the Coronation, see GREAT BRITAIN.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY. An institution of higher learning at Washington, D. C., founded in 1789. The total number of students for the year 1909-10 was 1085, while the faculty numbered 158. Among the notable changes in the faculty during the year were the following: Reverend John F. Quirk was elected Vice-President to succeed Reverend John J. Fleming, resigned; Hon. Hannis Taylor was appointed to the chair of international law in place of Hon. Wade Ellis, resigned. The following noteworthy benefactions were received during the year: From E. Francis Riggs, $10,000 for the library; from A. Lisner, $25,000 for the hospital. A seismograph station with both vertical and horizontal instruments was installed during the year. The capacity of the law school was doubled. There are about 100,000 volumes in the library. The income for the current year was $328,331. The President is Rev. Joseph J. Hannel, S. J.

GEORGIA. One of the South Atlantic Division of the United States and one of the thirteen original States. It has an area of 59,265 square miles of which 5040 square miles are water. The capital is Atlanta.

POPULATION. The population in 1910, according to the Thirteenth Census, was 2,609,121 as compared with 2,216,331 in 1900 and 1,837,353 in 1890. The increase in the decade 1900 to 1910 was 17.7 per cent. The State ranks tenth in point of population whereas in 1900 it ranked eleventh. The population of the larger cities and towns will be found in the article UNITED STATES CENSUS. The increased industrial importance of the State is reflected in the gain in population in several of the larger cities, notably in Atlanta and Savannah, as will be seen from the tables in that article.

MINERAL PRODUCTION. The chief products of