The Milwaukee incinerating plant was put in partial operation in April, 1910, and in full operation on May 12, 1910. It has a nominal daily capacity of 300 tons of mixed refuse, or garbage, ashes and miscellaneous rubbish. It is of the British type of furnace known as Heenan & Froude, but was built by the Power Specialty Co., of New York, after general designs by Hering & Fuller, New York, with Samuel A. Greeley as resident engineer. The contract requirements, all of which were fulfilled, called for the burning of 60 pounds of mixed refuse per square foot of grate surface; a minimum temperature of 1250° F and an average of 1500° F., and the evaporation of 1.25 pounds of steam from and at 212° F., for each pound of refuse burned. The operations of the first two months promised that enough steam would be produced by the furnaces to pay the operating and the fixed charges of the plant.

Ultimately, it is expected that one or more additional incinerators will be built at Milwaukee. For the present, all the garbage of the city is being collected separately and brought to the incinerating plant, and the same is true of the ashes and rubbish of portions of the city. The garbage is collected in steel boxes of 11⁄2 cubic yards capacity, mounted on four wheels, the whole drawn by one horse. The ashes and rubbish are collected in two-horse, bottomdumping wagons of 3 cubic yards capacity. At the incinerating plant the garbage boxes are lifted from the carts by an electric hoist, and carried into the building and dumped by an electric trolley crane. The ashes and rubbish wagons are dumped into boxes on the ground level and hoisted and dumped in like manner. The building is of concrete, both plain and reinforced, brick and steel, with a basement and first story about 100 feet square, and a second story smaller in floor plan. There is a radial brick chimney 10 feet in internal diameter and 154 feet high above the clinkering or main floor. There are four independent furnace units, each of 75 tons daily capacity, and four 200-h.p. boilers supplied with heat from the incinerating furnaces. The garbage, ashes and other refuse are dumped into storage hoppers on the second floor of the building, to be subsequently raked or shoveled out onto the mixing and charging floor, and fed to the furnaces through charging chutes, the contents of which are dumped mechanically on to inclined drying grates from which the mixed refuse is raked forward on to the burning grates. After the gases of combustion have passed from the various furnaces into a combustion chamber and been raised to a high temperature they go to the boilers, and thence to and through air heaters, which heat the air for the forced blast supplied to each furnace. Forced ventilation for the plant is provided by means of four 48-inch Sirocco fans, each having a capacity of 10,000 cubic feet per minute. The clinker from the furnaces is raked out through clinker doors on the ground floor and falls into clinker cars which run on tracks laid in the basement. Various recording instruments for furnace temperatures, amount of carbonic acid gas sent to the chimney and volume of air used for forced draft are provided. The resident engineer on construction was retained as superintendent of the incinerator, thus ensuring efficient operation and affording a marked contrast to the usual American city practice of employing the best engineering talent in design and con

struction of public works and then entrusting the operation to political appointees. The cost of the Milwaukee incinerating plant was about $210,000, or $700 per ton of nominal daily capacity.

The Columbus reduction works were put in operation on July 20, 1910. They form a part of a complete system of garbage collection, horse-and-wagon and railway transportation, and means of final disposal, all (except railway track and locomotives) owned by the city. Unlike Milwaukee, the Columbus plant deals with garbage only. A total of $290,000 of bonds was voted for the collection and disposal plant. The reduction plant alone, including a levee for flood protection and terminal tracks, cost about $180,000. The reduction plant has a contract capacity of 160 tons a day, which was exceeded on the acceptance test.

The city of Columbus owns 34 covered garbagecollecting wagons, of which about 25 were in 1egular service in 1910. The wagon boxes are of steel. The city has built a two-story garbage station, 40 x 90 feet in plan, with track accommodation for two railway cars. The garbage wagons are hauled into this station by way of an inclined driveway and are dumped into the cars below by the aid of an electric hoist. The city owns four garbage cars, each of 1400 cubic feet or 40 tons capacity. These are hauled to the reduction plant, between 7 and 8 P. M. of each working day. A stable for one hundred horses, with oflices, and with baths for the garbage men, adjoins the receiving and shipping station.

The Columbus reduction plant is located on the Scioto River, adjoining the city sewagepurification works, about four miles from the heart of the city. There is a green garbage building, 40 x 90 feet in plan, a main building, 76 x 162 feet in plan, a stable and a small office building. On arrival at the reduction plant, the garbage cars are weighed, then run into the green garbage building and dumped. After being sorted and drained the garbage is shoveled into conveyors which carry it forward and upward to the top of the main building, and dump it through swivel spouts into any one of eight digesters. These digesters have a capacity of 10 to 12 tons each, are 7 feet in diameter and 14 feet high, and are made of 5-inch steel plate, lined with 11⁄2 inches of cement and tile to prevent damage by wear and acids. The digesters are steam tight and in them the garbage is cooked for about six hours with steam at an entering pressure of 60 to 70 pounds per square inch. The cooking releases the grease in the garbage. To separate the grease and water from the solid matter or tankage and the grease from the water several operations are required. First, the tankage is dropped into one of the two large metal roller presses. The grease and water thus expressed go to catch-basins and are then pumped to a series of six grease-separating basins. Here the grease rises to the top and is sent to two treating tanks, where it is heated and impurities removed. The grease is then pumped to storage tanks of which there are four, each of 15,000 gallons capacity.

The solid matters in the grease-separating tanks is pumped out, pressed, and sent to dryers. The tank water from the grease-separating tanks is sent to a triple-effect evaporator, and the re sulting "stick" is also sent to the drying room. the digester tankage, after passing the roller presses, goes to and through revolving steam

jacketed driers, and then through a revolving screen. Next, the screened tankage and the "stick" or concentrated syrup already mentioned are put into one of two vacuum dryers and finally there results a fertilizer base, which, with the grease, forms the commercial product of garbage reduction works. During the latter part of 1910 percolating apparatus was being added to the Columbus plant, for the recovery of the considerable amount of grease still left in the tankage. This will be effected by the use of a volatile solvent, which latter will be recovered by_condensation for use over and over again. To supply steam for cooking the Columbus garbage three 61⁄2 x 20 foot horizontal tubular boilers are provided. The presses, revolving dryers and screens, etc., are driven by independent motors. The electric current for these motors and for lighting the reduction works is supplied by the municipally-owned electric light plant, at 12 cents per kilowatt hour. The vapors generated within the works are condensed in apparatus provided for the purpose and the odorous gases are burned under the boiler furnaces. The first few months of operation of the works indicated that the grease and tankage would pay all operating expenses and fixed charges of final disposal. The engineer for the design and construction of the plant was Mr. I. S. Osborne, who subsequently became engineer in-charge of garbage and refuse disposal, under the Board of Public Service Lengthy illustrated descriptions of the Milwaukee incinerator and the Columbus reduction works, written by the engineers in charge of construction, appeared in Engineering News (New York), for July 21 and November 17, 1910, respectively.

GARDNER, E. H. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, History.

GARDNER, S. R. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, History.

GARLAND, HAMLIN. 'See ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Fiction.

LITERATURE,

GARRISON, GEORGE PIERCE. An American historian and educator, died July 3, 1910. He was born at Carrollton, Ga., in 1853 and was educated at Edinburgh University and at Chicago University. From 1884 to 1888 he was instructor of English history in the University of Texas. In 1889 he was associate professor of history. From 1897 to 1909 he was professor of American history in the University. He was the author of The Civil Government of Texas (1898), Texas (American Commonwealth Series 1903), Westward Extension (American Nation Series, 1906). He edited the Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Texas and contributed to historical magazines and periodicals. GARSTANG, J. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Travel and Description.

GAS ENGINES. See INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, and PUMPING MACHINERY. GATHORNE-HARDY, A. E. See LITERA TURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Biography.

GAS PUMP. See PUMPING MACHINERY. GAY, WINCKWORTH ALLAN. An American artist, died February 23, 1910. He was born at Hingham, Mass., in 1821 and was educated in the common schools. He began the study of art at the age of seventeen under Robert Weir at the United States Military Academy at West Point. He studied also in Paris and spent several years in Italy and Switzerland. In 1850 he returned to the United States where he opened a studio in Boston. He went to Japan in 1877 where he re

GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

mained three years. Much of his time was spent abroad. His pictures of New England scenery are the best of his works, and among the most notable of these is "The Mackerel Fleet off Beverly Coast" (1863). GAYLORD, Dr. See CANCER. GAYNOR, W. J. See NEW YORK.

GEMS, ARTIFICIAL. See CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRIAL.

GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD. See UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, and EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

GENERAL ELECTIONS. See GREAT BRITAIN, History.

See EGYPT.

GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS. See WOMEN'S CLUBS. GENETICS See BIOLOGY. GENEVA CONFERENCE. GENIAUX, CH. See FRENCH LITERATURE. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN. A learned society organized in 1852 to investigate and disseminate new geographical knowledge, by discussion, lectures and publication; to encourage geographical exploration and discovery, and to establish in the chief maritime city of the country, for the benefit of commerce and navigation and the great industrial and material interests of the United States, a place where the means shall be afforded of obtaining accurate information for public use concerning every part of the globe. The society has over 1250 members. It has a library of over 40,000 volumes, which is constantly increasing. It awards two gold medals at the discretion of the Executive Council. These medals are bequests from General Cullum and Charles P. Daly and are called the Cullum and Daly medals respectively. The latest recipients of the Cullum medals are Sir Ernest H. Shackleton and Professor Hermann Wagner, and of the Daly medal Col. C. Chaillie-Long. The society erected during the year a new and spacious building at the corner of 156th Street and Broadway, New York City. The land for this was presented by Mrs. Collis P. Huntington. The building will cost about $250,000. It will afford five times the space available in the present building, which was constructed by the society about ten years ago. The collections of the society are also open for free reference to students and others properly introduced. The officers are as follows: President, Archer M. Huntington; vice-presi dents, John Greenough, J. Hampden Robb, Anton A. Raven; editor, Cyrus C. Adams; librarian, Frederick S. Dellenbaugh.

GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, NATIONAL. A learned body founded in 1888 for the publication of the results of geographic exploration and research. The data gathered are published in an illustrated monthly magazine, the National Geographic Magazine. The Society maintains a library at Washington at its headquarters. Here gold medals are awarded and a series of addresses is given. During 1910 the membership of the society advanced to 74,000, thus giving it rank as the largest scientific organization in the world. The society maintained in 1909 a large expedition in Alaska headed by Professor Lawrence Martin of the University of Wisconsin. An account of the researchcs of this expedition was published in the National Geographic Magazine in 1909-10. The annual dinner of the society was given in honor of the United States army and the discovery of the art of aviation. The guests of honor were the President of the

GEOLOGY. The contributions to geological knowledge during 1910 may fairly be considered as commensurate in interest and importance with the record for any of the few preceding years. No very remarkable discoveries can be ascribed, perhaps, to the year's activity; progress was rather the result of a great number of investigations by individual workers and public surveys based upon established principles. Governmental surveys, which of late have greatly increased their field of operations, naturally contributed a large share to this advancement. Their contributions included not only maps and descriptions of areal geology, but studies of mineral deposits, water resources, and allied subjects as well as much of more purely scientific interest.

INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS. A leading event of the year was the convening in Stockholm of the eleventh International Geological Congress, which holds triennial sessions. Nearly 800 members from all the leading countries were in attendance, and the meeting was the most successful one that has been held. The president of the congress was Prof. G. de Geer of the University of Stockholm, and the secretary J. G. Andersson, Director of the Geological Survey of Sweden. The attention of the members was directed to a limited number of subjects, within such departments as glacial geology, the Pre-Cambrian formations and the geology of the arctic regions, which were of particular concern to the Scandinavian countries. Preliminary to the congress a committee of Swedish geologists had prepared an exhaustive monograph on the iron ore resources of the world. An important work relating to the changes of climate since glacial times was also issued in connection with the meeting. It was voted to hold the next congress in 1913 in Canada.

DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY. The principle of isostasy in its relation to the figure of the earth was treated by J. F. Hayford, who analyzed a great number of gravity determinations made by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in recent years. The results as interpreted by Hayford apparently demonstrate the actuality of isostasy, or at least are best explained in the light of that principle. It would appear, therefore, that the earth's crust is in a delicate state of equilibrium and that the continental land areas are maintained in their position above sea-level by their deficiency of density, that is they are buoyed or floated on the substratum and not held in place by simple rigidity.

CHEMICAL DENUDATION. F. W. Clarke contributed an analysis of existing data on the subject of chemical denudation and showed that

From a compilation of data on the work of streams in lowering the land surface, R. B. Dole and H. Stabler found that the whole area included within the United States is undergoing denudation at an average rate of one inch in 760 years. Although this figure seems small enough, it becomes very significant when translated into tonnage of material transported by the streams, which totals no less than 783,000,000 tons each year, equivalent to 350,000,000 cubic yards of rock. The rate of denudation of course varies widely in different sections. The highest figure is reached in the southern Pacific basin, where the annual amount removed averages 177 tons for each square mile. The northern Atlantic basin comes next with 130 tons a square mile, and the lowest average is found in the Hudson Bay basin with 28 tons a square mile.

GLACIAL GEOLOGY. The controlling conditions of glaciation during the Pleistocene and earlier periods which were characterized by the formation of extensive ice-sheets was discussed by M. Manson, who expressed the view that the ice invasions were independent of a zonal distribution of temperatures such as obtains at present. The glacial phenomena occur without reference apparently to latitude, except in the last, or Pleistocene, period, when a solar control of temperatures may have been inaugurated. The Cambrian and Permo-Carboniferous glaciations extended far into the temperate and even into the tropical zones, so that very probably they were not influenced by climatic belts. On the other hand, the range of temperature must have been moderate throughout the world. Although it is not doubted that the heat emitted by the sun has varied in geological time, the conditions that gave rise to the glacial periods can be best explained on a meteorological basis, such as a state of persistent cloudiness. The effect of this would be to screen off most of the solar heat and to prevent radiation, thus eliminating the tendency to zonal distribution of temperatures.

A paper by G. de Geer brought out a new aspect of glaciology by demonstrating the possibility of using morainal accumulations as a means of computing time. A study of these deposits in Sweden showed that they are composed of layers in recurrent series, each series representing the increment of material of a single year. It was found possible to correlate the layers of adjacent moraines and to derive in this way a time-scale by which to reckon the interval that has elapsed since the ice-sheet retreated by

successive stages to the north. The lapse of time since the disappearance of the ice from southern Sweden was estimated at 12,000 years. Evidences of extensive glaciation during the Triassic period were reported by Ball and Shaler to have been discovered in Central Africa. A series of rocks in the Lualaba valley of the Congo basin has a conglomerate at the base that is made up of an unassorted mixture of pebbles and boulders showing glacial characters. The rock below the conglomerate is smoothed and deeply scored on the surface, as if by the action of a moving ice sheet. The source of the glacier is supposed to have been in the mountains south east of Kabambare. Permanent ice fields are found at present in Central Africa only on the three highest mountains-Kilimaxjaro, Ruwenzori and Kenia, at elevations above 13,000 feet. The existence of a glacial epoch in the PermoCarboniferous of South Africa in connection with the later Triassic epoch in the heart of the continent indicates a prolonged period of glaciation over an extensive area.

PHYSIOGRAPHY. With the fourth volume of Das Antlitz der Erde (issued also in English under the title The Face of the Earth) Eduard Suess brought to completion his great masterpiece of geological research. The nature of this work has already become widely known through the preceding volumes, the first of which appeared over a quarter of a century ago. The latest installment completes and unifies the exposition of the earth's structural features as unfolded in the earlier volumes, making use of new data where available, and presents the author's conclusions on the subjects of climatic changes, distribution of life and other fundamental problems.

STRATIGRAPHY. The paucity of fossil remains in rocks older than the Cambrian is one of the striking features of the geological record. Some traces of organisms have been found in PreCambrian rocks, it is true, but they are less abundant and less varied as to development than would be expected from the extensive fauna which marks the beginning of Paleozoic time. The existence of a highly differentiated fauna in the lowest Cambrian strata is presumptive evidence that life must have flourished previously for a very long period. In discussing the reasons for the seemingly abrupt appearance of the Cambrian fauna on the North American continent, C. D. Walcott expressed the view that it is to be explained by physical conditions with reference especially to the character of the sedimentation during late Pre-Cambrian or Algonkian time. The Algonkian rocks are mainly of terrigenous origin and are considered as having been deposited in epicontinental seas and lakes of fresh or brackish water. At the time of their deposition the American continent was situated with regard to sea level about as at present, or it may have been even more elevated, so that the oceanic waters could not gain access to the interior parts. Inasmuch as life originated and developed for some time, most likely, in the open ocean, there was no opportunity for the preservation of its remains in the present known Algonkian areas; but it may be represented in the strata that are buried under the oceans. At the close of Algonkian time a marine invasion took place and the life that had developed during that period has been preserved in the lower Cambrian deposits. Walcott proposes the term Lipalian to be used for the era

GEOLOGY

of unknown marine life and sedimentation which preceded the Cambrian.

LAND FORMATIONS. The evolution of the North American continent was treated very comprehensively by C. Schuchert in his Paleogeography of North America. The work gives a history of paleogeography from the first maps which were prepared by J. D. Dana down to the present; it includes 53 maps illustrative of the changes through which the continent has passed during the various periods of geological time since the Cambrian. The maps with the explanations in the text also afford a conception of the topographic relief of the area for the corresponding periods.

The possible existence of a land connection in Tertiary time between Scotland, Ireland, Greenland and Labrador was discussed by R. F. Scharff who brought forward evidences of both physical and biological nature in its favor. It has been found that a bank (Rockhall bank) with an average depth of 100 fathoms exists far out in the Atlantic to the west of Scotland. Dredging on this bank brought to light molluscs of shallow-water habits that could not live there under present conditions. It is also stated that the submerged platforms bordering the British Isles show river valleys and canyons of an ancient land surface, and the same has been asserted regarding the Atlantic continental shelf of North America. From the standpoint of biology the distribution of plants and animals on the two sides of the Atlantic requires for its explanation the assumption of such a land bridge in late geological time. Southern Greenland contains many European plant species. The Faroes furnish species that must have come from Greenland and North America.

ARCTIC CLIMATE. The climate of the arctic regions in past geological ages is a subject to which much interest is attached by the fact that the strata found in the higher latitudes often reveal evidences of an abundant fauna and flora. The existence of a varied animal life under arctic conditions is perhaps not so surprising, as in fact the polar seas at the present time teem with invertebrates, and even land animals like the musk ox and reindeer are able to maintain themselves far north of the Arctic circle. But it is difficult to understand how the extensive flora found in the Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic rocks could have existed under conditions similar to those of to-day. Most geologists who have studied the problem have concluded that the climate during those periods was actually warmer. Another explanation that has been considered by a smaller number as applicable is that the plants did not grow in place, but their remains were brought from southern latitudes by northerly flowing ocean currents or by streams. A careful examination of the evidences was made by A. G. Nathorst, who found that in most instances the plants are indigenous to the regions where their remains now occur. In only one or two places, as in Greenland and possibly Spitzbergen, are the remains associated with marine deposits, but these exceptions have not much importance for evidence since elsewhere beds of corresponding age show characters of fresh-water deposits. The facts lend support to the view that the climate during some periods must have been comparatively mild.

FOSSIL MAMMALS. The discovery of fossil mammals of Pleistocene age in cavern deposits of central Cuba, reported by Prof. de la Torre