The announcement of a commercial process of producing ductile tungsten was easily the most noteworthy event of the year in the incandescent lamp realm. Drawn filaments were made for experimental purposes only. An extremely severe test of experimental lamps was conducted in connection with the acceptance trials of the battleship Delaware. The drawn wire lamps withstood the concussion from broadsides far better than carbon filaments of the sturdiest type. When the lamp is perfected for commercial use it is predicted that it will equal in efficiency and surpass in durability all its predecessors of every type. As malleable tungsten is stronger than the best steel and is extremely refractory it is expected that it will find a large place in other arts. The metallized carbon filament has undergone constant improvement. There is much evidence that the possibilities of carbon as a filament material are far from exhausted and that its efficiency and strength may be yet so improved as to assure its permanent place in the art. There has been a marked tendency to minimize the candle-power rating of incandescent lamps. American makers have now substituted a three-voltage rating, in connection with a wattage rating. Each voltage corresponds with a certain efficiency and life performance and the buyer may select the lamp best suited to his conditions. The progress in the art of arc lighting was largely along commercial lines with minor improvements in design and performance and no innovations of importance. Magnetite arcs of high power increased greatly in favor as street light ing agencies. The titanium carbide arc which was designed to combine the efficiency of the metallic are with the advantages of alternating current supply has proven a disappointment and has ceased to be a commercial factor in the art. In the development and use of flame arcs Europe is still in advance of America though the domestic types are steadily improving. An unprecedented amount of research has been devoted to the theoretical side of light production, especially in the field of selective radiation It has been quite definitely established that metal filament lamps owe much of their gains in efficiency to this principle. Researches on the light of the fire-fly and other natural sources of phosphorescence attracted great interest, for it is suspected that the profound secrets concealed in these extremely efficient light sourcs may some day make revolutionary changes in the practical art of light making. The wide diversity of color values displayed by recent illuminants has brought a difficult photometric problem to a state of commercial importance, as it is necessary to rate such lamps in terms of existing standards. No complete solution of the color photometry problem has been reached, but the work of 1910 has brought it much nearer. Announcement was made that a phosphorescent reflector has been devised for application to mercury arcs. The surface is coated with a material which transforms certain of the blue and green rays which fall upon it into red and thus improves the color of the light for general use. The pessimistic fears that central station revenues would be greatly reduced by the general use of new high efficiency lamps have not been realized though there has been a very active ELECTRIC RAILWAYS movement so to modify the rates for lighting service that the advantages of cheaper light may be equitably shared by the central stations and consumer. See AERONAUTICS; DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY, ELECTRIC MOTORS. AUTOMOBILES; ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. Electric traction developments in 1910 were more conspicuous in the operating departments than in the realm of new construction. The great metropolitan electrification schemes so prominent in the years immediately preceding culminated in the inauguration of service through the Hudson River, Manhattan Island and East River tunnel system in connection with the superb new Pennsylvania terminal at New York, while the New York Central terminal was urged forward toward completion. It was announced that the New Haven system was about to construct connections via Long Island with the Pennsylvania terminal system. A report of the New Haven and New York Central systems on the proposed electrification of the Boston terminal zone estimated the cost at $40,000,000 and favored the gradual introduction and extension of electric motive power. No immediate action was promised. Agitation for terminal electrification continued actively in Chicago and Philadelphia, but without concrete progress SINGLE PHASE INSTALLATIONS. The acquisition of the control of the Boston & Maine by the New Haven system and its decision to proceed actively to electrify the Hoosac tunnel in western Massachusetts together with its approaches, the Harlem River branch and the New York, Westchester and Boston branch, all with singlephase, alternating-current equipment continuous in its main features with its present main-line system is noteworthy, indicating as it does the practical committment of the great New England trunk lines to the single-phase type of electrification. Other important extensions of single phase operation were made on the Spokane and Inland Empire, the Rock Island and Southern and the Chicago, Lake Shore and Southern railways. The latter road did noteworthy work with single-phase, multiple-unit trains, handling eleven cars at high speed with a single master controller. Single-phase installations of magnitude were also made in Europe, the most noteworthy being that of the Midi Railway of France which began the electrification of 70 miles with a 12,000-volt trolley system, using motor cars for passenger traffic and locomotives for freight. Ultimately the entire 200 miles between Toulouse and Bayonne will be similarly equipped, forming the most comprehensive electrification scheme yet undertaken in France. Though much criticised and suspiciously regarded in the past, the record of the single-phase system in 1910 was one of great progress, both in equipment and operating records, pointing to a great future in fields of traction where the power transmission problem is the dominating one. THE 1200-VOLT DIRECT CURRENT SYSTEM. Equal success attended the 1200-volt direct-current system of interurban traction. The most notable new installations were the extensive suburban system of the Milwaukee Electric Rail ways and Light Co., the Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis line and the Aroostook Valley system. The motors of these cars are wound for 600 volts and insulated for 1200. Interpoles are used to assist commutation. The motors are operated in sets of two in series, the line voltage being supplied from an alternating current transmission system by two synchronous converters run in series on the direct-current side. The cars and their equipment are much lighter and more economical of power than single-phase cars. THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM. The three-phase system using induction motors was largely extended on the state lines of Italy, following the great success of the Valtellina line. For this work an appropriation of $60,000,000 was made available. Forty 60-ton locomotives of 800 horsepower each were ordered. Each has two 3000volt three-phase induction motors which may be connected in series or in parallel, giving two inherent speeds with intermediate steps provided by resistance control. These locomotives are noteworthy for their great haulage capacity per ton, which is more than twice that obtainable with direct-current or single-phase motors. IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION. The success of the new types of American locomotives brought out in 1909 points to the marked superiority of large motors mounted on the main frames over the earlier types with truck-suspended motors. The reduction of dead car weight has engaged engineers for many years. Cars of exceptionally light construction operated by storage batteries of the new Edison type were experimented with by cross-town lines in New York formerly drawn by horses and mules The marked success led to extensive installations and the early elimination of animal motive power is expected. The storage battery car revives an old idea discarded because of the fatal defects of lead cells. The new batteries are light, efficient and capable of withstanding the severest service without rapid deterioration. TROLLEY-BUS SERVICE. The inauguration of trackless trolley-bus service in the suburbs of Los Angeles opened a new field in American traction, The development of a subway car suited to the needs of moderate sized cities was announced by DuPont, whose experimental installation at Cleveland attracted much favorable attention CAR AND TRAIN OPERATION. Much attention was paid to the problems of economical car and train operation by the important rapid transit companies. Checks on the efficiency of motormen made by the Manhattan Railway, using car metres and coasting recorders, brought out the fact that skillful handling of trains with rapid acceleration and full use of coasting produced a saving of energy of 36 per cent., as compared with careless operation. The money value of such a saving, which in the case of elevated trains is from two to three times the wage of experienced motormen, emphasizes the human factor in economical management. Satisfactory trials were made of ball and roller bearing for motor and car journals, the energy-saving ranging from 15 per cent. to 21 per cent. in comparison with common bearings. NEW YORK'S SUBWAY QUESTION. In the field of public relations the struggle between contending interests in New York attracted great attention. The year closed with the transportation commission of the city apparently committed to the non-competitive development of subway traffic by the Interborough Rapid Transit Co., ELIOT, C. W. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Political and Social Science. ELLIOT, S. R. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Biography. ELLIOTT, AARON MARSHALL. An American philologist and educator, died November 9, 1910. He was born in Wilmington, N. C., in 1846 and graduated from Haverford College in 1866 and from Harvard College in 1868. He studied in France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Austria until 1876. From that year until 1884 he was associate in Romance Languages at Johns Hopkins University. He was associate professor from 1884 to 1892 and professor from 1892 until the time of his death. His researches in medieval French languages were especially notable. Among the best known of these were the works of Marie de France. Dr. Elliott was for seven years secretary of the Modern Languages Association of America and was a member of many scientific associations, including the American Philological Association and the American Archæological Association. In 1907 he received the decoration of the Cross of the Legion of Honor in connection with his work in Romance language and literature. In 1900 he was a delegate from the United States to the Paris Exposition. ELLIS, JOHN W. An American banker, died December 28, 1910. He was born in Williamsburg, Ohio, in 1817 and was educated at Kenyon College. At the age of 18 he engaged in the banking business in Cincinnati, where he was successful and came to be regarded as the leading financier of that city. When the national banking system was organized under President Lincoln's administration he was among those called into consultation by Mr. Lincoln. He was president of the first national bank organized in the United States. He was afterwards president of the Chicago, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad and in 1870 became manager of a banking house in New York City. Ten years later he retired from active business life. ELLIS, L. M. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Biography. ELMAN, MISCHA. See MUSIC. RENCY. See CUR EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY 233 EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY for unavoidable injury while at work. National New York State Commission, appointed early in conferences were held at Washington in January 1909, made its report to the State legislature and at Chicago in June. The special commis- on March 19. The commission was continued sions in New York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota with twice the original appropriation to investieither continued investigations or reported their gate the subjects of cause and prevention of acresults; new commissions were appointed in cidents, unemployment and scarcity of farm Illinois, Ohio, Massachusetts, and New Jersey. labor. As to the then existing system of emCongress provided for a commission with an ap- ployers' liability the commission stated that it propriation of $15,000 to inquire into employers' was economically unwise and unfair, and, in liability and workmen's compensation, author- operation, wasteful, uncertain, and productive ized the Interstate Commerce Commission to in- of antagonism between workmen and employers; vestigate the causes of accidents, and amended that it was satisfactory to none and tolerable the Federal law so as to facilitate workmen's only to those who practically disregarded their suits for damages. A committee of the National legal rights and obligations; that its evils were Association of Manufacturers was sent abroad in most marked in hazardous employments; and the fall to investigate the practical workings that workmen do not and cannot provide adeof the compensation schemes of Europe. A pre- quate accident insurance, and therefore the vious committee of this Association did not ex- heaviest burdens fall upon those workmen and press itself favorably disposed toward the strong families least able to bear them. On the basis tendencies to break down the common law doc- of its inquiries the commission formulated two trines of assumed risks, contributory negligence, bills representing the most advanced American and the fellow servant rule, but it gave warning legislation on this subject. These were accepted that many forces were operating to institute the by the legislature and became effective SeptemEnglish system of workmen's compensation. ber 1. The first of these modifies the common law principles and presents a voluntary compensation plan; the second requires compulsory compensation for accidental injuries in certain specified dangerous occupations. INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS. Some statistics of industrial accidents were given by Mr. John H. Hammond at the Conference on Uniform Legislation at Washington, D. C., January 18. He stated that the disaster at the Cherry, Illinois, coal mine cost 300 lives and $500,000 in direct losses to the public and the coal companies. The average number of miners killed per 1000 employed in various countries he gave as follows: France, .91; Belgium, 1; Great Britain, 1.28; Prussia, 2.06; United States, 3.39. Moreover mine casualties had increased in the United States while decreasing in Europe. Very similar ratios were given by Mr. John Mitchell in the American Federationist; he showed that the total number of persons killed in the mines in twenty years preceding 1909 was 19,775 in the United States; 10,319 in Great Britain; 8460 in Prussia and 2944 in France. According to the Insurance Age the total number of wage earners killed by industrial accidents in the United States is between 30,000 and 35,000, while the number of non-fatal accidents exceeds 2,000,000. WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. The development of sentiment in favor of workmen's compensation was advanced by the report of a special committee of the New York Bar Association at its annual meeting in February. This committee favored the shifting of the burden of accidents from workmen and employers to the industry, and consequently to the consumer, by means of definite compensation prescribed by law. It declared for the English idea of workmen's compensation as against the German idea of workmen's insurance. In her volume on WorkAccidents and the Law, one of the volumes of the Pittsburg Survey, Miss Crystal Eastman drew the conclusions that many accidents are inevitable in the nature of modern business, and that they can be reduced, not by throwing heavier burdens of risk on imperfect human nature, but by legal regulation of industries. She pointed out that accidents are being reduced both by limitation on production, and such as shorter hours, slower speed and restriction on the employment of inexperienced persons and by the use of the police power, such as greater safety requirements, better inspection and more effective warnings and signals. CHANGES IN THE NEW YORK LAW. The The common law principles, that is, the fellow servant doctrine, the doctrine of contributory negligence, and the doctrine of assumption of risk, are greatly modified. It is provided that the injured worker may recover if the fellow servant whose negligence caused the injury is in any degree whatever in authority under the employer. The burden of proof as to contributory negligence is shifted from the employe to the employer. And it is provided that the worker shall not be deprived of compensation for assuming the risk, even though he continue at work, if, through any fault on the part of the employer, there exists danger which the employer knows of or could discover by reasonable inspection. In this same law is the provision of an optional compensation plan which may be applied to any industry. It is made possible for any employer and any of his employes in any trade to agree in writing to institute the statutory provisions for workmen's compensation. In making such an agreement the employe surrenders his right to sue for damages in court. This agreement may be cancelled by either party on sixty days notice. No compensation is to be given for an injury that does not disable the employe for at least two weeks; the rates of compensation are the same as in the compulsory sections noted below. Compulsory workmen's compensation is required in the following occupations: bridge building; all structural steel work; tunnels and subways; work on scaffolding twenty or more feet in height; labor done in compressed air; construction, operation or repair of apparatus charged with electric currents; work near explosives; and railway operations. In any of these trades workmen injured as the result of necessary risks or of negligence on the part of the employer or his agents are entitled to compensation without suit at law on the basis of a scale set forth in the law itself. Maximum compensations are provided by the statute; thus, for death of a husband, the compensation shall be 1200 times his average daily wage, but shall not exceed $3000; for serious injury the compensation shall be one-half the average weekly wage, but shall not exceed ten dollars per week. No compensation, however, can be obtained when the accident is due to the scrious misconduct of the worker. In case of a just claim the worker must make a choice between suing the employer for damages or the acceptance of the compensation provided in the law; having chosen one of these alternatives, he cannot later, if dissatisfied, choose the other. Some doubt was expressed as to the constitutionality of this mandatory law on the ground that it constitutes the taking of property without due process of law; but the commission held the law to be a legitimate exercise of the police powers of the State. Though these laws are far below the English standard, they were deemed sufficient as a first trial step in the direction of a complete application of the principle of compensation as against employers' liability. At the annual meeting of the Liability Insurance Association it developed that one of the effects of the foregoing legislation was to raise employers' liability insurance rates by about 20 per cent. It was charged by some of the insurance officers that many contractors were not taking into account the increased liability imposed upon them by the law, but planned to escape in the case of a big accident by declaring themselves bankrupt. The constitutionality of the New York law was attacked by the South Buffalo Railway Co., in October, on the ground that it deprived the employer of property without due process of law, denied him the equal protection of the laws, violated the right of trial by jury, and limited the amount recoverable as damages for injury resulting in death. None of these pleas was recognized. Moreover, the court held that, while there is no absolute certainty that the legislature may impose liability upon an employer without fault on his part, yet "every presumption is in favor of the constitutionality of the act; " the legislature may rightly shift part of the responsibility for injuries arising out of the necessary risks of an employment from the employe to the employer. The case was appealed. the death of a relative because the statutes are not framed for his benefit. This was in harmony with a decision of the United States Supreme Court in 1909, and, on account of the multitudes of alien workers in the country, discloses a serious defect in legislation. New laws in Ohio and Georgia increased the responsibility of the employer for the negligence of his agents and reduced the force of the common law doctrines, the Georgia act applying only to railroads. The violation of a safety statute by the employer was declared to make contributory negligence of the employe immaterial. In botn States also the doctrine of assumption of risks was abrogated in industries covered and contracts to forego the benefits of the law were declared void. Ohio declared contributory negligence of employe no bar to recovery when employer's negligence is gross in comparison. In Ohio minors, employed contrary to the childlabor laws, may not be deemed guilty of contributory negligence, nor to have assumed any risk. CORPORATION PLANS OF COMPENSATION. In April the United States Steel Corporation announced the introduction of its own system of voluntary compensation for injured workmen. Negligence of workers is not taken into account; but intoxication bars compensation. By this plan unmarried men temporarily disabled receive thirty-five per cent. of their wages and married men temporarily disabled fifty per cent., with an additional five per cent. for every child under sixteen years and two per cent. for every year of service above five years. For permanent injuries some compensations are given, depending on the extent to which employment is interfered with and on the annual earnings of the injured man. Widows and children of men who are killed will receive one and one-half years' wages, and an additional ten per cent. for each child under sixteen, and three per cent. for every year of service above five years. This scheme applies to more than 200,000 workmen; and was considered wise from both a humanitarian and a business point of view; but there was doubt as to the sufficiency of the compensation provided, especially for single men and aliens whose families were still abroad. The corporation has made systematic efforts to diminish accidents. At about the same time the International Harvester Company announced a similar plan. As in the above scheme workers may accept the plan and give up their right to sue or may not accept and retain this right. Compensation equals three years' wages, not less than $1500 nor more than $4000, in case of death; for the loss of one hand or foot, one and one-half years' wages, not less than $500 nor more than $2000; for the loss of both hands or feet, or one hand and one foot, four years' wages, not less than $2000; permanent disability secures a pension; and minor Workmen's compensation laws were considered injuries secure one-fourth to one-half wages, by the legislatures of New York, Wisconsin, depending on whether disability lasts less or more Minnesota, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts and perhaps some other States. Congress slightly modified the Federal employers' liability law and a bill for Federal compensation was introduced. Some of these bills provided for accident insurance on a contributory basis, both employes and employers to share the expense, but most of them looked to definite compensation without contributions from workers. In Wisconsin the Supreme Court held that a nonresident alien cannot sue for damages due to OTHER LEGISLATION AND DECISIONS. The National Civic Federation through its Department of Compensation for Industrial Accidents and their Prevention began, in October, the collection of data with a view to the general substitution throughout the country of workmen's compensation for employers' liability. The work of the Federation was divided between various committees having as their duties the drafting of a law to serve as a model for uniform State legislation; the investigation of the cost of the proposed substitution; and the formulation of proposals for the improvement of factory inspection with a view to the prevention of ac cidents. than thirty days. The plan also provides that a workman may contribute from six to ten cents a month and have his compensation increased. PENSIONS FOR SURVIVING RELATIVES. The newer view is that there can be no compensation for an accident resulting in the death of the bread winner of a family; and that, therefore, whatever payment is made should be looked upon as relief from possible poverty and distress. Along with this goes the conviction that less distress is occasioned in the long run among the 235 EMPLOYERS LIABILITY widows and children of killed workmen if this relief is given in the form of annual pensions instead of in a lump sum, as heretofore has been the rule. Thus the British Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and the Relief of Distress, after most extensive inquiry, declared that “no commutation of weekly compensation payments should be permitted and no lump sums paid in respect of fatal accidents . . . and that such sums should in all cases be invested in trust for the maintenance of those from whom the accident has withdrawn the means of support." This principle has been adopted by the committees having in charge the distribution of relief for those suffering from the Monongah, the Darr, and the Cherry mine disasters of 1907-9. These committees had together about a half million dollars, to which should be added one hundred thousand dollars disbursed by the State of Illinois for relief at Cherry. The Cherry Commission divided its beneficiaries into two classes: the first included widows residing in the United States whose children were all under fourteen years; the second all others. A widow with one child receives twenty dollars a month until the child is fourteen; five dollars is added to the pension of each widow for every additional child. These payments are continued until two, or sometimes three, of the children are fourteen years of age. Payments to the second class are made in lump See OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES. EMPLOYMENT. See UNEMPLOYMENT. ENDOWMENT. See UNIVERSITIES AND sums. COLLEGES. ENGINEERING. The topics in the various branches of Engineering are treated in the present work under their respective titles. Thus subjects in Civil Engineering will be found under such titles as BRIDGES, CANALS, CONCRETE, DAMS, FOUNDATIONS, RAILWAYS, TUNNELS, etc.; in Sanitary Engineering under GARBAGE DISPOSAL, SEWAGE PURIFICATION, STREET CLEANING, SANITATION, WATER PURIFICATION, WATER WORKS; in Electrical Engineering, under ELECTRIC LIGHTING, TRANSMISSION OF POWER, ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY, WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS TELEPHONY, etc.; in Chemical Engineering, under COPPER, IRON AND STEEL, the articles on metals and minerals, AGRICULTURE, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS, CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRIAL, etc.; in Mechanical Engineering, under AERONAUTICS, AUTOMOBILES, BOILERS, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, etc.; in Marine Engineering, under SHIPBUILDING, NAVAL PROGRESS, BATTLESHIPS, etc. See also the articles on the various industries and minerals, PAVEMENTS AND ROADS, MUNICIPAL Government, IRRIGATION, DRAINAGE, etc. ENGINEERING EDUCATION. See UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. ENGINES. See INTERNAL COMBUSTION EN GINES. ENGINES, FIRE. See FIRE PROTECTION. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. A religious denomination which is the "Established Church of England" and the dominant religious body of that country. The title must not be confused with the Anglican Church, which includes that group of dominant churches which are in communication with or have sprung from the Mother Church of England. These churches are the following: Church of Ireland, Episcopal Church of Scotland, the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America, the Church of ENTOMOLOGY Canada, the Church of Australia, the Indian Church, and the Church of South Africa. These churches are all independent in their jurisdiction and are not amenable to the ecclesiastical courts of that church. No census of the church membership of the Church of England has been made in recent years. The number of communicants is estimated at approximately 2,500,000, while the church sittings number about 6,000,000. The number of the clergy in England and Wales is about 23,000, of whom 14,750 are beneficed, and 7770 are assistant curates. The total amount contributed in voluntary offerings to the Church of England for the year 1909 was £8,060,289. The revenues from church property amounted to £5,753,557. At the head of the Church of England are 37 bishops, of whom two, Canterbury and York, are archbishops. The bishops superintend the work of each diocese and are aided by the suffragan or assistant bishops, of whom there were 37 in 1910. The bishops are appointed by the King and have a seat in the House of Lords. Of great interest in the history of the church in recent years has been the Brotherhood movement, which has grown rapidly. It is a development of the Pleasant Sabbath Afternoon Association, which was an attempt to attract men who did not attend the ordinary Sunday service. The Brotherhood movement binds together the members of the society into a union, which manages its own affairs and selects its own officers and speakers. The problem of increase of candidates for the ministry has proved serious in the Church of England in recent years. The church makes no financial provisions for the training of the ministry and the old universities are no longer sending the majority of their students into the ministry of the national church, while the new universities fail to supply the deficit. The announcement by the bishops that after 1917 they would ordain no candidate who was without a degree has proved a premature decision and it is to be reconsidered. It is becoming evident that the church will need to provide for the free education of candidates for the ministry whose only bar is poverty. After a period of freedom from ritual troubles, there was an outbreak at Brighton during the year. The Bishop of Chichester had sent out a pastoral letter to the clergy of his diocese, based on their replies to his visitation questions. The Bishop objected to certain practices which he regarded as unlawful, and in particular he ordered that the Sacrament should not be reserved except for its primitive and catholic use, namely, for the sick and dying, and that it should not be used at any public service, such as exposition and benediction. The vicars of four Brighton churches could not adopt the Bishop's views and two of them resigned their benefices. ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. See ARCHITECTURE. ENGLISH MUSIC. See MUSIC. ENOCK, C. R. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Travel and Description. ENROLLMENTS, SCHOOL. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, and under different States and countries. ENTERIC FEVER. See TYPHOID FEVER. ENTOMOLOGY. As compared with other countries, economic entomology receives in the United States an unusual amount of attention, |