He also founded the Order of Merit for distinc- elementary vernacular education, £E70,577 in tion in war, science, art, literature and the ser- 1908. Total schools other than kuttabs in vice of man. 1907-8, 735, with 113,430 pupils (25,134 The King's personality was a most attractive females); of whom 91,844 were Egyptians, 7929 one. He was approachable, genial and sym- Greeks, 6379 Italians. According to their repathetic. At the same time he had an abun- ligion the pupils were: Mohammedans, 54,186; dance of royal dignity and would not tolerate Christians 51,869 (Copts 28,961); Jews, 7149; any encroachment on what he considered the others, 226. There are secondary, special, and respect due his position. His devotion to the industrial schools, and 11 professional colleges. routine work which devolved upon him was ex- Total expenditure of the Ministry of Education traordinary, and even during his last illness it 1908, £E450,450 (estimate). was impossible to prevent his devoting his strength to matters which came up for his consideration. The King had for some years suffered from emphysema, with an attendant bronchial catarrh. This caused digestive disturbances and other symptoms which gave grave concern to his physicians. On April 7, 1910, he went to Biarritz for a brief rest. He returned on April 27th apparently better and at once took up the thread of his very full life. On April 30 during a visit to Sandringham he apparently contracted a cold. This continued and on May 4 he complained of an irritation in the throat. The conditions revealed to the physicians on examination called for a consultation, and it was found that there was an irritable and catarrhal condition in his throat and other organs. In the meantime, however, the King continued to give important audiences. His condition did not improve and on May 5 he had several severe attacks of dyspnea and the physicians at once saw that the gravity of the symptoms had increased. He had other attacks of a more dangerous character and on the afternoon of May 6 consciousness began to fail, and death came at 11:45 P. M. of that day. See GREAT BRITAIN. EDWARDS, D. M. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Travel and Description. EGG. See ZOOLOGY. EGGLESTON, G. C. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, Biography. See AGRICULTURE. EGGS. EGYPT. A country of northwestern Africa, nominally under the suzerainty of Turkey but practically under the protection of Great Britain. Capital, Cairo. There were in 1907 10,366,826 Mohammedans; 706,322 Copts; 38,635 Jews; 57,744 Roman Catholics; 76,953 Greek Orthodox; 27,937 Eastern Christians. The Mosque and University of El Azhar at Cairo had (1908) 329 professors and 9940 students; the Mosque of El Ahmadi at Tantah, 69 and 3607. COMMERCE. The commerce for three years is given in pounds Egyptian (1 pound Egyptian $4.943): = Imports of manufactured cotton in 1908, £ E3,046,793. Exports of £E3,276,250; in 1909, raw cotton in 1908, 6,348,493 cantars, valued at £E17,091,612; in 1909, 6,952,480 cantars, £E21,477,745. AREA AND POPULATION. Total area, exclusive of the Egyptian Sudan, about 400,000 square miles; of which only 12,976 square miles (the Nile valley and delta) are settled and under cultivation. Total population (1907), 11,287,359 (nomadic Bedouin tribes estimated at 97,381 Countries of origin and destination and value additional). Of the censused population 10,- of trade in thousands of pounds Egyptian: 366,046 were Egyptians, 69,725 Turks, 62,973 Greeks, 34,926 Italians, 20,653 British France Italy, and Maltese, 14,591 French and Tunisians, 65,- Great Britain Russia Belgium China, etc. Total Imports from Exports to 1,149 2,916 123 2,294 502 Less than £E1,000. EDUCATION, ETC. The oldest known schools are the indigenous "kuttabs," which the government has been gradually bringing under departmental supervision by means of awards for efficiency. In 1909 there were 3581 of these SHIPPING. Vessels entered (1909), 2035, of kuttabs under inspection; with 190,875 pupils 3,431,781 tons (707, of 1,347,581 tons, British); (16,852 girls), receiving total grant-in-aid of cleared, 2040, of 3,433,972 tons (705, of £E21,479. Total government expenditure on 1,340,566 tons, British). Number of vessels of all kinds passing through the Suez Canal in 1909, 4239, of 21,500,847 gross tons (2561, of 13,242,016 tons, British). Receipts of the company in 1908, £4,340,235; in 1909, £4,825,707. PRODUCTION. Of the total population, 61 per cent. (the fellaheen) are dependent upon agriculture. Area under cultivation (1908), 6,448,000 feddans (1 feddan=1.038 acres). Under wheat, 1,168,166 feddans; corn, 1,977,705; cotton, 1,640,415; sugar cane, 38,562; rice, 248,763; beans, 541,085; barley, 440,606. Cotton crop (1908), 7,234,669 cantars (1 cantar-44.9 kilograms). The entire cotton area depends upon irrigation, as there is practically no rainfall during the summer. Near the Nile the water level of the canals is higher than the adjacent land levels, and getting the water from the canals to the fields is a simple matter; nearer the desert borders it is much below that of the fields, and water wheels, operated by camels or horses, are used to bring the water up to the land level. Three crops a year are produced: cereals, sown in November, harvested in May or June; cotton, sugar, and rice, sown in March, harvested in October or November; rice, corn, millet, and vegetables, sown in July, harvested in September or October. A large part of Assiut and Beni Suef has now perennial irrigation. The level of the Assuan dam is to be raised by 6 metres, doubling its capacity; a new barrage has been constructed at Esna. Though the corvée has been abolished, the people are called out in emergencies, such as the breaking of the Nile banks in flood time. In 1907, 16,898 men were called out. About 1,000,000 tons of salt are produced annually, and turquoises are obtained in the Sinai Peninsula. COMMUNICATIONS. Length of State railways 1464 miles Dec. 31, 1908. Dec. 31, 1909, 1465 miles (exclusive of the Sudan miltary railway to Khartum); agricultural light railways, privately owned, about 780. Working expenses in 1908 (State railways), £E2,082,231; gross receipts, £E3,435,451. Length of telegraph lines (1909), 2893 miles; wires, 12,952; telephone wires, 2088; telegraph offices, 328; post-offices, 1574. FINANCE. The unit of value is the Egyptian pound, worth $4.943. Revenue and expenditure for three years are given in pounds Egyptian: 1909 As a the government is the British agent, consul-gen- HISTORY. POLITICAL UNREST. The Nationalist agitation, which has been the chief feature of Egyptian history in the last few years, continued during 1910. It was marked early in the year by an atrocious crime, the killing of the Egyptian Premier, Boutros Pasha, who was shot by a student on February 20. The murderer was a Cairo chemist, named Ibrahim Wardani, who had been Secretary of the Young Egypt Geneva Congress in 1909 and was a correspondent for a native paper. He appeared to have no personal grudge against the victim, but to be actuated merely by hostility to the British Sir Eldon Gorst, commenting on 15,887,313 supremacy. the crime, declared that he had no hestitation 16,226,841 in saying that the leaders of the Nationalist party were morally responsible for the murder. He said that the murderer in defense of his deed had merely reiterated the accusations against Boutros which had appeared in the columns of the Nationalist press. By a strange irony, he added, the blow had fallen upon the first genuine Egyptian who had risen to the highest position in his country. Lord Cromer pronounced Boutros Pasha the ablest of the Egyptian ministers and a man thoroughly devoted to his country's true interests. The press generally, including even the Nationalist papers, united in denouncing the crime. The murderer was condemned to death on May 13, and hanged on June 28. Mohammed Said Bey became Premier of the new Cabinet. Mr. Theodore Roosevelt, who arrived at Cairo in March when public attention was concentrated on this crime, became much interested in Egyptian affairs and The estimated revenue for the year 1910 reached £E15,350,000 (direct taxes, £E5,565,090; other taxes and dues, £E5,083,000; receipts from revenue-earning administrations, £E3,725,000); expenditure, £E15,150,000 (costs of administration, £E4,898,426; tribute and debt, £E4,595,594; expenses of revenue-earning administrations, £E2,492,306; defense £E867,006; pensions, £E540,000; Sudan deficit, £E325,000; civil list, £E281,803. Public debt, May, 1910, £95,195,140 (sterling). GOVERNMENT. The khedive (Abbas Hilmi, since January, 1892), is the head of the government. In him and his ministers is also vested the final legislative power, the legislative council and the legislative assembly (46 of whose members are elective) being but consultative bodies. The practical administrative head of EGYPT 229 upon his visit to London delivered a speech (May 31) on England's position in Egypt, which caused widespread comment. After say ing that England had given Egypt the best government that it had ever had, recent events, and especially the assassination of Boutros, showed that it had made the mistake of attempting to do too much in the interests of the Egyptians themselves. He declared that in such a situation organized timidity and sentimentality might cause more damage than even violence and injustice. "Either you have the right to be in Egypt or you have not; either it is or it is not your duty to establish and keep order. If you feel you have not the right to be in Egypt, if you do not wish to establish and keep order there, why, then by all means get out of Egypt. If, as I hope, you feel that your duty to civilized mankind and your fealty to your own great traditions alike bid you to stay, then make the fact and the name agree and show that you are ready to meet in very deed the responsibility which is yours." The speech was condemned in certain quarters as discourteous to the government which was showing Mr. Roosevelt hospitality. On the other hand, Sir Edward Grey declared that Mr. Roosevelt had apprised him of his views beforehand and he added that he had seldom listened to anything with greater pleasure. Mr. Balfour, the Opposition leader, said that he never heard a speech dealing with the British problem "which was less deserving of the charge of being an insult to the country whose hospitality the speaker was at the time enjoying." were In the opinion of many such an outrage as the murder of Boutros brought discredit on the experiment of giving the Egyptians a larger share in the management of their own affairs. The experiment had been begun before Lord Cromer left Cairo and seemed a practicable compromise between the policy of evacuation and that of complete British control. But the government offices were full of disaffected persons, some of whom were members of the Nationalist club. Many secret societies formed and plots against the British supremacy were constantly springing up. It was charged that the government showed little vigor in repressing these tendencies. On June 13 in a speech in the House of Commons, Sir Edward Grey declared that it was impossible to use the Legislative Council or the General Assembly for the improvement of Egypt, if they are to become, as has lately seemed to be their tendency, a mere instrument of the movement against British supremacy. He also declared that if the Egyptian Nationalists should continue their agitation against the British occupation it would be necessary to take active measures for the protection of Egyptian ministers. In view of the Nationalist agitation, it was not possible for the government to relax its repressive policy. On June 14 the Council of Ministers passed a measure giving the Assize Courts jurisdiction in press cases and also a measure for repressing secret societies, overruling the action of the Legislative Council, which had tried to reject or greatly modify these measures. Several sentences were imposed for seditious publications, and effective military preparations were taken for putting down disorders. GENEVA CONFERENCE. The annual meeting of the permanent committee of the Young Egypt ELECTRIC BATTERIES party was held on September 14 under the presidency of Mohammed Fahmy. Mr. Keir Hardie was invited to take the chair and in a speech in which he attacked the speeches of Mr. Roosevelt and Sir Edward Grey, he urged unity of the Young Egyptians if they would rid themselves of English supremacy and also advised them to repudiate criminal or illegal methods. Resolutions were passed protesting against the continuance of British occupation and against Sir Edward Grey's speech, urging the issuance of a manifesto in England which should explain the real state of things. The Nationalists endeavored to secure permission from the French government to hold an Egyptian Nationalist Congress at Paris on September 21, but this was refused. EGYPT, EXCAVATIONS IN. See ARCHEOLOGY. EGYPTIAN MOTH. See ENTOMOLOGY. EGYPTIAN NATIONALIST CONFERENCE. See EGYPT. EHRLICH'S "606." See ARSENO-BENZOL. ELASTICITY OF CURRENCY. See BANKS AND BANKING. ELECTION OF SENATORS, DIRECT. See DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS. ELECTRIC ANAESTHESIA. THESIA. See ANES ELECTRICAL CHEMISTRY. See CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. See TELEGRAPHY; TELEPHONY; WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY; WIRELESS TELEPHONY; ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES. Nineteen hundred and ten was a year of average growth in the electrical industries, the aggregate advance in manufactures and earnings being about 15 per cent. The comparative estimates for 1909 and 1910 prepared by an authoritative engineering journal were as follows: MOBILES. ELECTRIC BATTERIES. The progress of the Edison nickel-iron storage cell overshadowed all other achievements in the battery field during 1910. This cell has had a nominal commercial status for over five years, but recent improvements have given it a great impetus. The electrolyte consists of potassium hydrate with a small addition of lithium hydrate. The positive plates of the new type consist of a nest of small steel tubes filled with nickel oxide and flakes of electrolytic nickel. The negatives are nickelplated steel grids with flat rectangular pockets. The lead-acid cell suffers a constant loss of capacity when in service, deteriorates badly when left idle, especially if discharged and is severely injured by short circuits. Its plates are liable to warp or buckle from unevenly distributed chemical action and a deposit settles to the base of the cell which tends to cause a short circuit in time unless occasionally removed. The tests reported indicate that the nickel-iron cell has none of these defects. It tends to increase in capacity if the electrolyte is properly maintained. Short circuits and periods of idleness have little detrimental effect upon it. Cells taken from a motor truck after running 17,000 miles gave better tests than new cells under laboratory conditions. A feature of Edison cells which assures them extensive use in the electric vehicle field is their large storage capacity per unit of weight, 14 watt-hours per pound from the smaller cells and 16 from the larger. A competitor for the Edison cell has been invented by Morrison. It also has a caustic potash electrolyte, but its positive plates consist of an oxidized amalgam of copper and its negatives of zinc chromite. It is claimed to have a capacity of 25 watt-hours per pound and to be almost indestructible. The lead-acid cell advanced but little in 1910. A new process of plate manufacture was developed by Salom, who produces the active materials chemically and incorporates them into active grids by hydraulic pressure without electrolytic forming. It is claimed that the plates so obtained excel in durability and maintenance of capacity. The popularity of electric storage battery vehicles of every type increased greatly in 1910. Experience has shown the storage battery truck to be remarkably reliable and efficient for heavy commercial haulage. Central station managers have worked actively to promote electric vehicles as the supply of current for charging is a most attractive off-peak load and one which can be furnished very profitably at low rates within restricted hours. Large installations of batteries for load regulation and stand-by service were very few. In almost every case preference was given to steam turbine generating equipment, which has much of the flexibility of the storage battery and is much cheaper. The storage battery has been expected to play an important part in the application of gas engines to electric generation, but the cost of such combination has remained so high as to discourage such installations. A new primary cell known as the Bleeck-Love was brought out in England. It is a two fluid cell and gives a constant pressure of 2.7 volts with a large current capacity. ELECTRIC HEATING AND COOKING. Continual progress in the introduction of heating and cooking devices operated by electricity was noticeable throughout the year. Central stations, recognizing the importance of this kind of load, have, through their business-getting departments, made great efforts to popularize the use of that kind of apparatus; and a great variety of such energy consumers is obtainable. It must be said, however, that the competition set up by gas is a powerful restraining factor to the adoption of electric cooking apparatus; and what is equally important, these latter give their most satisfactory results only when used with intelligence, which unfortunately is not a common characteristic of household servants. The fact that electric toasters, coffee percolators, chafing dishes, plate warmers, etc., are being increasingly sold and used, shows a growing understanding by the public of the use and management of them. Of the portable heating devices, electric flatirons have had the largest sale, and next to these, electric heating pads. Where heating of rooms and apartments is common, there is a tendency to abandon the direct-radiation resistance coil in favor of devices in which the heat is absorbed by water in a tube or jacket surrounding the coil, thus making it possible to store heat during times of small demand for lighting, and incidentally to furnish hot water for domestic use. Furthermore, it is calculated that in order to compete with gas selling at $1 per thousand feet, electricity must be sold at the rate of 3 cents per kilowatt hour. As regards electric heating for industrial purposes, slow progress is reported at present, and nothing notable in the way of apparatus was brought out during the year. ELECTRICITY IN RURAL DISTRICTS. While the adoption of electricity by the farmers on a general scale can scarcely be said to be noticeable, yet, taking the United States as a whole, it is increasing in use for a variety of purposes through widely scattered regions. In many places, gasoline engine generator sets are in use for lighting farm dwellings, barns and outbuildings; in other localities, where a transmission line is available, energy is sold to farmers along or adjacent to such a line. In a few instances, those living along the route of interurban trolley lines are supplied from the trolley wire at 500 volts, direct current, on a grounded circuit, using five lamps in series; and occasionally a 500 volt motor for pumping water has been installed. There is as yet no uniformity in charges for energy in the cases cited. The use of necessarily small transformers for supplying individual customers is objectionable on the score of inefficiency; and the various questions as to which party is to bear the expense of the pole line construction from the main transmission line to the often remotely situated farm buildings, lamp renewals, maximum demand, etc., are not fully worked out. For irrigation purposes, there is a real demand, not limited to any State or locality, for cheap power to operate pumps; and in this direction there is a noticeable growth in the use of electricity which is fostered and assisted by the awakening of the people to the necessity of intensive methods of cultivation, where sucess may depend largely on the cost of irrigation pumping. ELECTRIC LAMPS. See ELECTRIC LIGHT ING. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. The exceptional progress in the art of electric lighting which marked the three preceding years was well sustained in 1910. It was marked, however, by the widespread use of the new illuminants and great improvement in the standards of illumination rather than by the introduction of new forms of lamps. The new lamps were first placed on the market with a full realization of their defects and the resources of investigation and invention have been assiduously employed to remove them. During the year the performance of metal filament lamps was improved fully 50 per cent., price, durability, efficiency and maintenance considered. The tungsten lamp of large size arrived and at once became the active rival of the enclosed are in what had previously been the latter's exclusive province. The 500-watt lamp was auspiciously launched and the 1000-watt lamp promised by American manufacturers. The latter type is already produced in Germany. At the other extreme tungsten lamps giv |