EDUCATION

223 for by 361,198 teachers-92,745 men and 268,453 women- at a cost of $188,173,590, or $24.19 per pupil in average attendance, or 18 cents per pupil per day.

ATTENDANCE. Of the attendance of 3,745,591 in 1907-8 in places of 4000 population and over, 19 per cent. was in first grade classes, 19 per cent. in second grade, 14 in third, 13 in fourth, Of the high school attendance of 420,000 in the same places in 1908-9, 42 per cent. were in the first year, 26 in the second, 17 in the third, and 12 in fifth, 10 in sixth, 8 in seventh, 5 in eighth. 12 in the fourth. Evening schools in 233 places of 8000 and over enrollment in 1908, 379,052 pupils who averaged an attendance of 41 per cent.

EDUCATION

There were also 105 reform schools with 51,871 inmates.

For the blind there were in 1908-09 41 State schools with 534 teachers and 4413 pupils, for the deaf, 57 public and 70 other institutions with 12,771 pupils. There were 26 State and 17 private institutions for the feeble-minded, with 11,103 inmates receiving instruction.

There were in 1908-09, 3738 pupils enrolled in 78 schools in Alaska, an increase of 44 per cent. over 1907-08.

ASSOCIATIONS. The National Education Association meeting in Boston in July, declared: its endorsement of the National Bureau of Education, and of an increased appropriation for its TEACHERS. Of the teachers, 21 per cent. were support; its appointment of the United States men as compared with 42 per cent. in 1880, 34 commissioner of education, the president and all per cent. in 1890 and 29 per cent. in 1900. The living ex-presidents of the National Association, average monthly salary was $53.88, the average and seven others to formulate plans for an infor men being $62.35, for women $51.61, a marked ternational council of education; its commenincrease since 1900. The public schools in 1907-8 dation of the growing interest in the moral deused 262,170 buildings and property valued at velopment of children; its belief in the old $945,395,162, expending a revenue for school courses of study giving culture and transmitting purposes of $381,919,526 or $4.27 per capita the ideas and ideals of the past, along with its of population as compared with $2.84 in 1900, endorsement of the movement to make courses $2.24 in 1890, and $1.56 in 1880. This expen- of study more democratic, commercial and inditure was divided into $73,640,408 for equipment, $77,923, 879 for maintenance, and $219,780,123 for salaries The expenditure for public schools represented in 1904 25 cents for each $100 of the total wealth of the country, as compared with 24 cents in 1900, 31 in 1890 and 17 in 1880. Permanent funds for the benefit of public education amounted in 1908 to $246,943,349, the States having more than ten million being Texas, $61,526,243, Illinois $20,275,835, Minnesota $19,709,383, North Dakota $14,000,000, Missouri $13,754,150, and Indiana $11,002,363.

SPECIAL SCHOOLS. There were in 1908-9, 273 normal schools with 3660 instructors, 82,288 students, and 14,165 graduates. Of these the 193 public normal schools had 3150 instructors, 73,370 students, and 12,659 graduates. There were also 9622 students in training courses for teachers in 733 public high schools, and 4,105 in 195 private high schools and academies. The 7809 such students in universities and colleges brought the total number of students in training courses for teachers to 103,824.

More than half of the 1348 places of 4000 inhabitants and over now provide manual training in the schools. Only 37 did so in 1890. In 265 public high schools there were 25,665 students in manual training. In 310 specifically manual, industrial and technical schools there were 71,090 high school and 43,555 elementary pupils. These 310 schools include 60 for In

dians.

There were in 1908-9 574 commercial and business schools with 3300 instructors and 146,288 students, 72,255 business and commercial students in 1431 public high schools, 7194 in 386 private schools and academies, 5405 in 66 universities and colleges, and 1350 in 39 normal schools.

In the 16 former slave States and the District of Columbia there were 1,665,781 negroes in the schools in 1907-8 as compared with 1,560,070 in 1899-1900 and 1,296,959 in 1889-1890. There were in 1908-9 135 schools especially for negroes with 2417 teachers and 44,973 pupils, 23,160 receiving industrial training.

Reformatories gave instruction to 39,877 inmates, of whom 36,262 were in vocational classes.

dustrial, with more liberal appropriations for work in agriculture, in the trades and industries, and in home economics; its belief in all efforts to make educational plants more sanitary and to impress the importance of the proper observance of the laws of health; its endorsement of legislation against the employment of children in industrial occupations that limit their educational opportunities; its endorsement of higher salaries, broader culture, more thorou training, and loftier ideals for teachers; its sense of the duty of all teachers to advance the movement for the world's peace; and its opposition to any division of the public school funds among private or sectarian schools.

At the Education section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, meeting in Boston during the Christmas recess of 1909-10, Professor Mead of the University of Chicago held that "The Psychology of Social Consciousness" should be more fully considered in teaching. Professor Dearborn of Chicago presented tests for measuring progress in learning to read and of the success of methods of instruction, and Professor Ruediger of George Washington University presented similar tests for merit in teachers.

THE SOUTH. The thirteenth annual Conference for Education in the South, meeting in Little Rock, Ark., in April, reported that since 1900 current expenditure for public education in the Southern States had increased 150 per cent., the value of school property 200 per cent., the expenditure for the training of teachers 200 per cent., high school facilities in cities and towns 100 per cent., in villages and rural districts 400 per cent., the average length of the school year from 20 to 25 per cent., the average increase of teachers' salaries from 50 to 100 per cent. The General Education Board, besides granting about $1,500,000 for higher education in the South, had been instrumental in estab lishing about 1000 high schools, chiefly through maintaining special high school representatives in the State universities. It had also aided agricultural demonstration work and rural schools, through the United States Department of Agriculture, In May, the board appropriated $31,450 for such professors of secondary education

66

and $113,000 for the agricultural work men- Nashville in March, discussed "The Church and tioned. In January the Peabody Education Educational Forces," "The Public School and fund allotted $1,000,000 to the Peabody Normal the Church," Progress in Religious and College, at Nashville, Tenn. Moral Education," "The Moral Atmosphere of the High School," and "Public School Teachers and Moral Education."

SPECIAL SUBJECTS: the CLASSICS, SCIENCE, ART. In special subjects the instruction in classics was influenced by the report of the American Philological Association in favor of the translation of unseen passages as a test of knowledge. There were efforts toward a better correlation betwen secondary school and college instruction in chemistry, and many discussions of the teaching of elementary and secondary school physics and of the general relations of

tion Association of New York emphasized indirect instruction in the arts through good pictures and other decorative agents in school buildings.

CITY SYSTEMS. In the schools of New York City, naturally the leaders in many matters, 698,933 pupils enrolled in September, an increase of 18,065 over 1909. Of these 53,816 were on part time, an increase of 663. One high school enrolled 1407 new pupils. The Permanent Census Board of the Department of Education found 1236 children living in one block. In January Dr. W. H. Maxwell was re-elected superintendent for a third term of six years. His twelfth annual report, appearing in December, recommended provision in all schools for serving lunches to pupils, a department for training that subject to education. The Public Educateachers of atypical children, the continuance of sewing through the seventh and eighth grades and of cooking into the sixth as well as the last two years, a bureau of hygiene to examine pupils for physical defects and to take steps to remedy them; the establishment of summer schools, summer evening schools for teaching English to foreigners, several day truant schools, savings banks in every school, a small fee for evening schools, a corps of special teachers to assist regular teachers whose classes contained over 50 pupils, and, finally, the reorganization of salaries along civil service lines, with promotions and payments according to merit, without sex distinction. Of the 127 teachers retired in New York during the year ending February 1, more than one third were suffering from general nervous breakdown. In October a commission recommended salary increases of $1,700,377 a year, 93 per cent. for women teachers and 7 per cent. for

men.

In Chicago high schools the enrollment of girls increased 589, while that of boys decreased 22. Beginning with May all principals and all high school instructors in Chicago were required to have college degrees. In January $240,000 a year was added to teachers' salaries, chiefly on the basis of service.

Pittsburg received from Mr. Carnegie a fund yielding about $12,000 a year for the benefit of teachers. Much of this was expended in pay ing all the expenses of many teachers of summer schools.

Boston increased its pensions for teachers from about one-fifth to one-third of the salary on retirement at 65.

In Baltimore the refusal of the City Council to confirm two members of the school board of nine approved by the mayor, gave rise to charges of interference on the part of political interests and of school-book publishers.

The superintendent of schools in Springfield, Mass., found present day pupils far superior to those of 40 years ago, when tested by a set of examination questions and answers of that date. The same superiority was found, by means of the Springfield questions, in other cities.

MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. The Moral Education Board, with headquarters in Baltimore, prepared for schools a course of stereopticon illustrations of moral lessons from actual happenings. The Character Development League of New York prepared 100,000 booklets on "Traits of a Perfect Character " for the schools of New York and New Jersey. The Religious Education Association, meeting in

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT. Although on the part of college authorities there was a growing tendency to coöperate with fraternities, public school authorities continued in some places to restrict, in others to abolish school secret societies. Colleges and secondary schools continued to widen their differences of opinion concerning the requirements for college entrance until some comprehensive discussion and agreement on the question seems imminent. That much adjustment is still necessary was shown by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools dropping many high schools in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Michigan and Ohio from its accredited lists; and, in the East, of the Rector of St. Paul's, on the one hand, advocating that the secondary schools take over all collegiate instruction, and, on the other hand, Harvard's showing that of 178 first and second group scholars only seven came from such schools as St. Paul's.

SPECIAL ACTIVITIES. These are industrial, military and nautical education; international relations and schools for immigrants; physical education, hygiene, and play-grounds; vacation schools, provision for exceptional children, adults and negroes. The fourth annual convention of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, meeting in Boston in November, made a good beginning toward some practical adjustment between the schools and conditions in the fields of manufacture, commerce and labor. Military interests in the schools were encouraged by the action enabling the Secretary of War to aid school target practice. New York City continued to conduct the only free nautical school.

International relations were encouraged by French official encouragement of the teaching of that language in American schools and a German plan for an international exchange of pupils. The special school needs of immigrants continued to receive attention.

The Russell Sage Foundation reported that of 2392 high schools investigated, only 469 had athletic fields, 175 gymnasiums, and 139 a medical examination of students. Only 372 gave instruction in hygiene and 255 presented it; 188 gave instruction in gymnastics and 114 presented it; 232 gave instruction in athletics, and 28 presented it. In all of these matters the colleges do far better. The Playground Association reported 1535 public playgrounds maintained in 267 cities at a cost of $1,353,114 an

225

nually. Of 323,000 children examined in New he spent one year attending the lectures of the York 183,000 had defective teeth, 73,000 nasal most distinguished teachers, among whom were and 38,000 eye troubles. A Boston philanthro- Professor Max Müller and Professor Goldwin pist in March established a $2,000,000 endow Smith. He also was in Cambridge for four ment for the free dental care of all children terms. His early education, however, was not under 16. Boston also experimented with school confined to study, but included travel and visits lunches. The movement for open-air schools to foreign lands. In the celebrated visit paid met with extension and success. by the Queen and Prince Albert to the Emperor Napoleon in August, 1855, Prince Edward and his sister accompanied their parents. At fourteen years of age, after a walking tour in the west of England, he went to Germany. A tour of Ireland followed in 1858 and in the following year, when he was already legally of age, he started on a Continental tour, travelling incognito as Lord Renfrew. More important than these journeys, however, were visits to Canada and the United States and a tour in the Holy Land and Egypt.

He received careful training as a boy from his father and his mother, and at the hands of private tutors. At the age of eighteen he spent several months in Edinburgh University where he studied chemistry under Lord Playfair, Roman history under Dr. Schmitz, and Italian, French and German under other teachers. In the meantime he exercised with the Sixteenth Hussars. After completing his studies in Edin- In the meantime the question of the marriage burgh he went to Oxford and was entered as an of the Prince was receiving earnest attention, undergraduate in Christ Church College. Here and in September, 1862, it was officially an

nounced that he was engaged to be married to the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, the daughter of Christian IX. whom he had visited the previous year. They were married on March 10, 1863. On February 5 of the same year, Prince Edward had taken his oath as the Prince of Wales, and his seat in the House of Lords. Upon the Prince and Princess of Wales now devolved the duty of representing the Queen at all public and semi-public functions, and during the forty years that elapsed between the death of his father and his own accession to the throne the Prince performed these duties with unfailing tact and good humor.

and his recovery was so rapid that the coronation could take place on August 9.

King Edward ascended the throne holding the esteem and affection of his subjects to a greater degree than has probably been the lot of any previous English sovereign, and this he retained to the time of his death. He showed a deep interest in the welfare of Ireland and visited that country in 1903 and 1904. He was enthusiastically received, and held court at Dublin Castle. During his reign King Edward visited almost all of the countries of Europe more than once and welcomed their sovereigns and representatives to England as his guests. The In 1868 the Prince and Princess paid a state influence on the establishment of good relations visit to Ireland, where the Prince unveiled a between countries which he exercised in this statue of Edmund Burke, and on their way way was extraordinary. In 1903 he made visits home stayed for some time in Wales. In No- to Portugal, France and Austria and in 1904 vember of the same year, they made a long tour he made a visit to the German Emperor at Kiel, of the Continent and after spending several which was the subject of much speculation weeks in France, Denmark, Germany and Aus- throughout Europe. In 1906 also he paid visits tria, they passed on to Egypt, remaining some to the Continent. He was accustomed to spend weeks on the Nile. They then went to Constan- a portion of each year in the south of France at tinople and visited the Crimea and Sebastopol. Biarritz. In 1908 he visited President Fallières In November, 1870, the Prince became danger of France and in the same year went to Denously ill from typhoid fever and recovered only mark and other places in Scandinavia. In the after the greatest universal anxiety. In 1875 same year he went to Reval where a meeting the Prince made a tour of India where he was with the Czar took place. These visits were rewarmly received by the native rulers. During turned by the sovereigns of these countries and the years that followed the Prince devoted him- illustrated the great cordiality of feeling beself chiefly to his official duties and to the tween England and other Continental nations. pleasures of social life. In 1887 came the first These visits were often politically important jubilee of the Queen in which he played an im- events and were made to some extent with defiportant part. In 1891 occurred the celebrated nite political purposes. King Edward's influbaccarat case, in which the Prince was obliged ence, both from his personality and from his to give evidence in a lawsuit. There was at this relationship with most of the sovereigns of Eutime much criticism of his actions in playing rope, by marriage or otherwise, made him a games of chance in houses to which he was in- potent factor in the politics of Continental vited. In the same year the Prince George be- Europe and won him the title of "Edward the came ill from typhoid fever, and no sooner had Peacemaker." The King also took the keenest inhe recovered than his elder brother, Prince Al- terest in the politics of England, and here as bert Victor, the Duke of Clarence and heir-ap- in foreign affairs he had the grasp of the pracparent, was attacked by influenza in its severest tical statesman without being exposed to the form. This Prince had just become engaged to disturbing influences of personal and party inPrincess Victoria Mary of Teck. In less than a terests. week from his first seizure he died, and Prince George then became heir-apparent.

The remaining years up to his accession were without particular incident in the life of the Prince. The funeral of the Queen took place on February 2, 1901, and the King's first public appearance was at the opening of Parliament in the same month. This was accompanied by a pageantry which, at that time, was an innovation, but to which the people became accustomed during the life of the King. He passed the first year of his reign more or less in retirement and was busily occupied, both in public work and such semi-private affairs as the reorganization of the Palace and the resettling of the resources of the Crown. He had as Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, who rendered most loyal service.

The coronation of King Edward was set for June 26, 1902, and for months preparations had been made to make it the most splendid and moving spectacle that had been seen in England for generations. On the morning before the day fixed, rumors were circulated of the illness of the King, and soon these became a certainty. He was suffering from perityphilitis and it was found necessary to remove a large internal abscess. Although then in his 60th year the King survived the ordeal, showing remarkable vitality,

It is in the domain of foreign affairs that his influence was most widely felt, and it is due to him that Great Britain's relations with France, Germany, Russia, and Austria were, officially at least, uniformly friendly and cordial during his reign. His popularity in the United States counted for much in the friendly relation between the two countries which existed throughout his reign.

The King took keen delight in the pleasures of life and was an ardent sportsman. He bunted big game in India and was a lover of fishing. He was the most prominent figure in the racing field. He maintained a stud of horses and several times horses wearing his colors won the Derby and other great races. He was also interested in agriculture and was one of the largest breeders and exhibitors of live stock in England. Privately he lived the life of a country gentleman and his chief pleasure was in improving his estates and rearing fine stock.

He took great interest in charitable and philanthropic work and he founded and supported a hospital of his own. Institutions like the Salvation Army and the Church Army had his personal encouragement. He instituted the Edward Medal, which with the Albert Medal has been called the Victoria Cross of Civil Life. It was awarded for deeds of heroism by civilians.