visable as a measure of safety. Associations total of 20 points. Chester A. Smith won secwere formed for New York City and Philadel- ond place, with 12 points. The 100-kilometre phia in July; for the State of Louisiana, the world's professional paced championships held State of Georgia, and Boston in August; for St. at Brussels, Belgium, was won for the second Louis and Detroit in September; and for Chi- successive year by Georges Parent. His time cago and the Twin Cities in October. These was 1 hour 22 minutes and 33 4-5 seconds. G. associations are expected to continue until the Friol was the victor in the 1000-metre world's Act expires in 1914. On September 16, Secre- professional contest The amateur champion in tary MacVeagh promulgated certain rulings re- the 100-kilometre event was H. Hens, whose garding the withdrawal of a bank from an time was only a few seconds slower than that of association and the redemption fund and the Parent, the professional champion. W. J. security for additional circulation. Bailey won the 1000-metre amateur championship, his time being 1 minute 45 2-5 seconds. In an international 2-men-team race ridden at Berlin Walter Rutt of Germany and J. Clarke of Australia were the victors, covering 23322 miles. Two teams tied for second place. They were made up of R. Walthour of the United States and Johann Stohl of Holland and Berthiet and Brocco, both of France.

For discussion of currency reform see CENTRAL BANK. See also articles on the various kinds of banks, and MONETARY COMMISSION, NATIONAL.

CURRENCY ASSOCIATION.

RENCY.

See CUR

CURTIS, NEWTON MARTIN. An American soldier, died January 8, 1910. He was born in De Peyster, New York, in 1835, and attended Gouverneur Wesleyan Seminary in 1854-55. From 1857 to 1861 he held office as postmaster in his native town. He became a captain of the 16th New York infantry in the latter year and rose through successive ranks to brevet brigadier-general in 1864. This distinction he received for distinguished service near New Market. He was made major-general of volunteers in 1865 for gallant and meritorious service at the capture of Ft. Fisher. He received a medal of honor in 1891 for gallantry in this action. He was honorably mustered out of service in 1866. After serving as United States Collector of Customs and special agent of United States Treasury from 1867 to 1880 he was elected a member of the New York Legislature, serving from 1884 to 1890; he was member of Congress in 1891-93 and 1893-97, and was president of the Society of the Army of the Potomac in 19078. He wrote From Bull Run to Chancellorsville (1909) and lectured on subjects dealing with the civil war.

CURTISS, GLENN H. See AERONAUTICS. CUSTOMS. See UNITED STATES, also paragraphs on the subject in articles on countries and States.

CUSTOMS COURT. See UNITED STATES, section Judiciary.

CUSTOMS FRAUDS. See UNITED STATES,

section Customs.

CUTTER, BENJAMIN. An American musical educator and author, died May 10, 1910. He was born in Woburn, Mass., in 1857, studied the violin under various masters in Boston and Stuttgart, and in 1882 he began teaching violin harmony and harmony analysis at the New England Conservatory of Music. He was a member of the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Henschel and Gericke. Among his published compositons are Mass in D, chamber music and religious choral music. He was the author of Exercises in Harmony, Harmonic Analysis and How to Study Kreutzer.

CYANAMIDE. See FERTILIZERS, CYCLING. The professional sprint championship in 1910 again went to F. L. Kramer, who scored a total of 52 points. J. A. Folger ranked second, with 30 points, and P. O. Sullivan Hehir third, with 18 points. E. L. Collins won the professional paced championship, scoring 156 points, as against 105 for George Wiley. J. F. Moran, who finished second the year before, had a total of 49 points. The amateur champion was Frank Blatz, who rolled up a

The annual international six-day race held at Madison Square Garden in December again attracted thousands of spectators. At the end of the grind four teams were tied for first place and the usual mile event was ridden to place the teams. This was won by less than a wheel's length by Eddie Root, who with J. F. Moran formed the New York-Chelsea team. The other teams and their order of finish follow: Rutt and Clarke, Fogler and Hill, Hehir and Goulett, Mitten and Thomas, West and Demara, and Cameron and Halstead. The distance covered by the leaders was 2545 miles 3 laps, more than 100 miles less than that covered the preceding year and nearly 200 miles behind the record made by McFarland and Moran in 1908.

Ray Duer, who in 1909 established new paced records against time for all distances between 1 and 10 miles, added the 2-3 mile record to his list in 1910. His time was 55 seconds. Hardy Downing rode a half mile under simiar conditions in the record time of 38 2-5 seconds and S. H. Wilcox rode the quarter mile in 19 seconds, also a new record. Riding against time unpaced new figures were made in four events, A. J. Clarke and E. A. Pye dividing the honors. Clarke rode the 2-3 mile in 1 minute 12 seconds and the 1 mile in 1 minutes 52 seconds while Pye rode 2 miles in 4 minutes 1 3-5 seconds and 3 miles in 6 minutes 9 1-5 seconds. In professional competition new records were made by P. O'Sullivan Hehir, who rode a third of a mile in 37 3-5 seconds; by A. J. Clarke, who rode 2 miles in 3 minutes 38 1-5 seconds and 4 miles in 8 minutes 18 2-5 seconds; by Alfred Gouillet, who rode 15 miles in 33 minutes 15 seconds; by Walter Demara, who rode 20 miles in 43 minutes 39 seconds; and by F. L. Kramer, who rode 25 miles in 54 minutes 13 seconds. In amateur competition no new records were made for the regulation distances.

CYPRUS. A Levantine island, occupied by Great Britain but nominally a part of the Ottoman Empire. Capital, Nicosia (14,752 inhabitants; 1908 estimate 16,079). Area, 3584 square miles. Population (1901), 237,022; 1908 estimate 258,997, exclusive of the military. Mohammedans, 56,026; Christians, 199,685. Larnaca (8681) and Limasol (9044) are the chief ports. Elementary schools (1908-9), 561 (376 Christian, 185 Moslem), with 28.680 pupils. Agriculture is the chief industry. Yield (1908): wheat, 2,521,468 bushels; barley, 2,345,872; vetches, 214,456; oats, 397,519. Olives, cotton,

1906

Imports*

£501,921

Exports*

464,392

Revenue +

286,873

1907
£629,054
603,530
311,810

Expenditure +

182,066

Gov. grant +

28,000

203,209
50,000

1908

grapes, carob-beans, fruits, linseed, silk, cheese, DAIRYING. MILK SUPPLY. The number wool, and hides are also produced. Livestock of milch cows in the United States in 1910 re(1898): 62,174 horses, etc.; 47,242 cattle; and, mained about the same as in 1909, but the in 1908, 277,230 sheep and 256,345 goats. Ir- quality of the stock has improved somewhat rigated for winter crops (1906-7), 1945 acres. as the high price of beef sent many inferior Sponge fishing is carried on. Asbestos and cop- cows to the shambles. The annual increase in per are mined. Gypsum, terra umbra, and the amount and value of milk and milk promarble exist in abundance. The trade for three ducts was about normal. The conditions which years, exclusive of specie, and the revenue and govern the manufacture of butter, cheese, and expenditure are given below: condensed milk varied but little from preceding years, but the disturbing factors which affect the fresh milk supply of cities and large towns £567,444 were more pronounced than usual. The amount 588,902 of milk produced annually is constantly in303,447 creasing and is now estimated at about 7,267,244,061 50,000 000,000 gallons, about one-third of which is consumed as such. Since milk is particularly the food of infants and invalids the agitation for a pure milk supply has become almost universal. The dairyman has been warned that he must keep only healthy stock and take more care in the handling of milk and cream. He has also been confronted with increased costs of living for himself and for his stock. But the consumer has objected to any increase in the price of milk and therefore the dairyman has been forced into an unenviable position until the public can be educated to appreciate sanitary milk at its true value. The year will be remembered as one of general unrest for those engaged in supplying cities with milk.

*Calendar years.

1908-9.

Fiscal years 1906-7, 1907-8,

Tonnage entered and cleared (1908), 955,859. Public debt, 292,537 pounds; yearly tribute to the Porte, 92,800 pounds. There are 746 miles of good roads; 61 of railways; 240 of telegraph lines; a cable connects with Alexandria. The colony is administered by a British high commissioner (1910, Sir Charles Anthony KingHarman), assisted by an executive council and a legislative body of 18 members.

CYRENE, EXCAVATIONS IN. See ARCHÆ

OLOGY.

DA COSTA, JOHN CHALMERS. An American surgeon, died December, 1910. He was born in Philadelphia in 1863 and graduated from the Scientific Department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1882. He studied at the Jefferson Medical College, graduating in 1885. He was connected with various hospitals and the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia as resident physician, assistant surgeon, demonstrator of surgery, and professor of surgery. He was one of the most eminent surgeons of the United States. He was the author of A Manual of Modern Surgery (1895-1906, 5 editions). He also edited the new American edition of Gray's Aanatomy of 1905 and contributed on surgical subjects to medical periodicals. DA FONSECA, Marshal HERMES. See BRAZIL.

DAGGETT, WILLIAM G. See NECROLOGY. DAHLLITE. See MINERALOGY. DAHOMEY. A French colony in French West Africa (q. v.). Area, 107,000 square kilometres. Estimated population (1908), 820,443. Capital, Porto-Novo, with 22,507 inhabitants. There were in 1908 8 official schools, with 985 pupils; 20 private, with 2016; 105 Mussulman, with 1775. The principal products are as follows (the values given are for 1908 exports): Palm kernels, 5,557,658 franes; palm oil, 4,595,926; corn, 1,198,439; live animals, 137,611; copra, 80,633; textiles, 68,695; animal products, 19,606. Total imports and exports (1908), 10,737,378 and 12,179,530 francs respectively. Vessels entered, 439, of 25,964 tons; cleared, 439, of 55,211 tons. Total railways, 267 kilometres; telegraph lines, 2117 kilometres; number of post and telegraph offices, 25. Revenue in 1908, 3,289,507 (direct taxes, 1,104,844 francs; patents and licenses, 183,299; posts and telegraphs, 82,834; etc.); expenditure, 3,070,085. A lieutenant-governor (1910, H. Malan) administers the colony under the direction of the governor-general of French West Africa.

DAIREN (formerly, DALNY). See KWAN

TUNG.

PURE MILK REGULATIONS. Nearly all of the large cities have increased the stringency of the milk regulations within a year or two. Many of them require a bacterial count in addition to a stated fat content and other requirements. Many restrictions concerning the production and sale of milk have been imposed by state as well as by municipal authorities. The city of Chicago passed through the second year of the enforcement of a drastic ordinance which requires that all milk sold in the city be pasteurized or be produced by cows which do not react to the tuberculin test. The same requirement was also announced for the city of Washington, D. C., in the latter part of the year. Boston has had a year in which no milk was lawfully sold in bulk. Among other regulations the Idaho State Board of Health announced the following: "No person, firm or corporation on and after May 15, 1910, shall give, furnish, sell or offer for sale, or deliver any milk or cream in quantities less than one gallon except in sanitary bottles, sealed with suitable cap or stopper, except where milk is sold at a milk house or dairy."

PRICE AND COST OF PRODUCTION. The most serious annoyance to the milk traffic was the Boston milk war between the producer and contractor. It lasted over five weeks and was the largest movement of its kind which has yet occurred. Boston consumes annually about 92,000,000 quarts of milk. Over one-half of this amount is shipped by producers from without the State. On the refusal of the city contractors to advance the price paid to the producer so that the latter would receive winter rates through the summer, many shippers ceased sending milk to Boston on May 1. The trouble was finally adjusted by a compromise. The contractors agreed to pay the winter price of 35%1⁄2 cents per 82 quart can for ten months. A joint special committee of the Massachusetts Legislature was appointed to investigate the dairy industry and after numerous hearings

DAIRYING

201

DAIRYING

recommended that the railroads provide an in pasteurized and in clean raw milk. Pasteuropen car system for producers; that the rail- izing does not prevent milk from souring but road commissioners be given more authority merely delays the process. Peptonizing does over rates and service for milk transportation, not take place unless the milk is heated at a and that better inspection of milk be provided. temperature high enough to destroy all germs They concluded that dealers were making a fair in the negative stage. profit and could afford to pay the producers at least 4 cents per quart. The AttorneyGeneral of the State of New York investigated a so-called milk trust in New York City and found that a combination of dealers existed which fixed the sale price of milk to the consumer and the price paid to the producer. An important result was the reduction of the price of milk from 9 to 8 cents per quart. The Secretary of Agriculture made an inquiry concerning the price of milk in all of the large cities and discovered that the producers received less than 50 per cent. of the price which the consumer pays for the product. The railroads receive about 7 per cent. and the rest goes to the wholesaler and retailer. The average price paid in June by consumers in 78 cities was almost exactly 8 cents per quart. In the North Atlantic and North Central States the average was 7.5 cents, in the Western States 8.9 cents, in the South Central 9.1 cents, and in the South Atlantic States 9.3 cents per quart.

STUDIES IN THE MILK PROBLEM. At the call of the New York Milk Committee a conference on the milk problem was held in New York City in December which brought together a large number of specialists from all parts of the country who discussed the problems connected with controlling the milk supply in the interest of public health. During the year many bacteriological studies have been made of raw, pasteurized, and sterilized milk. Esten at the Connecticut Station has found that cows' mouths are the most abundant sources of at least one type of lactic acid bacteria, and that winter milk has a higher acidity than milk produced in the summer. Prescott and Breed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have devised a new and more accurate method of counting leucocytes in milk, a much larger number being normally present than was revealed by the methods previously used. Hew lett and his associates in England find that there is a large increase in the number of leucocytes in milk at the beginning and end of the lactation period. Hoffman at the Wisconsin Experiment Station found that in milk high in leucocytes from normal causes the leucocytes do not contain fibrin, which is an important distinction in studying pathological conditions of the udder. At the Virginia Experiment Station it was found by actual count that sprinkling the straw bedding in cow stalls so as to prevent dust and bacteria from arising reduced the percentage of bacteria 53 per cent. and that the number was still further reduced by using a closed pail and moistening the flanks of the cow before milking. Romer and Sames in Germany have tested the effect of sterilizing milk with ultraviolet rays. They do not consider it a practical method as the milk acquires an acrid taste before it is completely sterilized.

Ayers and Johnson of the United States Department of Agriculture have completed the most thorough study of pasteurized milk ever made. They found that the relative proportion of the peptonizing, lactic acid, and alkali groups of bacteria is approximately the same

COW-TESTING. Many new cow-testing associations have been organized during the year. The value of these associations is shown by one which has been in existence for four years. In this case the annual profit per cow has been nearly doubled and the average return for each dollar invested in feed has increased from $1.64 to $1.98. A Holstein cow owned by the Missouri Experiment Station has surpassed the previous world's record for milk production for six months. In that length of time she produced 17,008 lbs. of milk or an average of 93.4 lbs. per day for 182 days. At that station a careful study was made between heavy and light milkers. The real difference in the capacity of individual cows to produce milk economically was proved to be in the ability to consume a large amount of feed above maintenance requirements, rather than in the abilty to make a better use of the food eaten.

CONDENSED MILK. The condensed milk industry has increased so that the factories in the United States require 1,500,000,000 pounds of fresh milk annually. Hunziker at the Indiana Station has made studies on factors affecting the quality of the product and has found that breed, feed, care of the cows, period of lactation, care of the milk and season of the year greatly influence the effect of concentration on the marketable properties of condensed milk, and he recommends a change in the Federal Standard. The use of dried milk is on the increase, and a method has been devised in which the action of cold is substituted for that of heat during the first stages of the process.

BUTTER AND CHEESE. The continued high price of butter has curtailed its use to some extent and its place has been taken by oleomargarine. The output of uncolored oleomargarine has doubled since 1908, and if this increase continues the price of butter and its consumption per capita will be reduced. A study of the keeping qualities of butter at the Michigan station show that one species of organism was active at a temperature of -6° C. in salted butter. A series of studies for the past four years at the Illinois station shows that the pasteurization of milk does not affect the body or texture of the butter nor improve the quality of the butter made from milk of a poor quality. The method of making cheese of the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk has been improved by experiments carried out by the Wisconsin Experiment Station so that a cheese of uniform texture and quality can be made throughout the year with the use of hydrochloric acid.

DAIRY PRODUCTS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. (1) CANADA AND GREAT BRITAIN. The dairy industry in Canada has made the usual growth, but as in the past three years the exports of dairy products decreased owing to a larger home consumption. The total value of dairy products exported was about $20,000,000; the greater portion consisted of cheese, nearly all of which was sent to Great Britain. An accidental printers' error in the AldrichPayne tariff bill which reduced the tariff on cream entering the United States from 5 cents

DALLAS. See MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. DALZELL, JOHN. See PENNSYLVANIA and UNITED STATES, section Congress.

DAMS. The construction of dams is of course a natural part of the formation of great reservoirs for IRRIGATION and WATER SUPPLY projects and the reader is referred to these articles for additional information. The dams described below, built during the year, showed novel features of design or construction.

per pound to 5 cents per gallon has caused heavy shipments of cream from Canada to the Northern States to be manufactured into butter. Since 1880 there has been a remarkable change in the milk trade in the United King. dom, so that milk is now the chief source of income to many who formerly depended upon wheat. The annual milk production is now estimated as 8,686,000 tons, valued at £57,725,000. A notable change in the industry is the formation of large cooperative milk supply depots. A movement has recently been started to send fresh milk from Ireland to the London market. Although Great Britain makes about 75,000 tons of butter per year, the imports amount to 210,000 tons, exceeding in value the imports of every other article of food except wheat and sugar. The imports of butter from foreign countries has decreased the past year, Murrumbidges-River and two of its tributaries. but there was a corresponding increase of colonial importations, due to the development of the dairy industry in Australia and New Zealand.

BARREN JACK DAM. There was in course of construction during 1910 in New South Wales a dam for the storage of water for irrigation purposes which was pronounced to be, when finished, one of the largest works of its kind in the world. The project was being carried out by the Colonial government and was for the purpose of impounding the waters of the The main river was to be converted into a lake for a distance of 40 miles above the dam, while the two smaller streams were to be backed up for 24 and 19 miles, respectively. The total (2) OTHER FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Holland is storage capacity thus provided will be 785,000 sending more butter to Germany than formerly. acre feet, that is, the equivalent of a body of Germany is also importing a large amount of water one foot deep, flooding 785,000 acres. butter from Siberia. Denmark exported about The rock in that part of the country is granite, 17,000,000 lbs. of milk and 25,000,000 lbs. of and large quantities of boulders or "plums " cream to Germany; and 180,000,000 lbs. of were available at the site. These boulders are butter, a large part going to Great Britain. built into the concrete, making an unusually The use of casein in the arts has increased massive combination exactly suited to the pur100 per cent. in Europe the past five years, pose. The dam is curved against the pressure Germany alone consuming 4000 tons annually. of the water, the radius of the inner face being The principal uses of this important constituent 1200 feet. To give an idea of its size, which of milk are as sizing for paper, paint, patent is in some respects greater than that of the foods, combs, buttons, etc., and experiments are Roosevelt dam in Arizona, it is worthy of note in progress for using it for many other purposes. that the structure here described, and called Because of reforms in the land tenure of the locally the Barren Jack dam will be 784 feet peasantry, creameries are springing up in Si- long, 240 feet high, with a width of 18 feet beria and to a less extent in European Russia at the crest, and when filled up to the spillin all sections where the transportation facili- way, the water will be 224 feet deep at the ties are adequate for the shipment of butter. inner face. The estimated cost is $3,680,000,There are now 1868 butter factories in Sibera; and it is hoped to finish the work in 1913. about 30 per cent. are managed by artels (union associations). The exports of butter from Western Siberia in 1910 amounted to 130,000,600 lbs., an eight-fold increase since 1900. The total number of dairy cows in Australia is 1,900,000, with a milk production of 450,000,000 gallons. The butter and cheese factories number 560. Each year shows a gain in butter production and next to wool, wheat, and mining products butter is the greatest source of income, the exports now having reached the value of $12,000,000 per annum. The latest available figures show a total production of 145,000,000 lbs. New Zealand has within five years doubled its output of dairy produce. The dairy industry in Argentina is making some growth, though it is of far less importance than the dressed meat trade. In 1910 there were 29 butter factories, 76 cheese factories, 85 factories for making a variety of products and 529 establishments designated as creameries. Among the important books on dairying published were Grimmer, Chemie und Physiologie der Milch; McCaffrey, The First Century of Dairying in New South Wales; Martin, Vol. II of Geschichte der Rahmgewinning; Publow, Fancy Cheese in America; and a revised edition of Milk and Its Relation to Public Health, published by the United States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service.

LA PRELE RIVER DAM. On the La Prele, a branch of the Upper Platte River, a dam was in course of construction at a point 15 miles west of Douglas, Wyo., to impound water for an irrigation project that has about 20 miles of canals and ditches. The dam is built between the steeply inclined cliffs to a height of 130 feet. It is 330 feet long on the crest, and 110 feet long at the base, which is carried down to solid rock. It is being built of reinforced concrete, and the unusual feature of it is its form, which is that of a prism, open on one side, and strengthened by a series of slender buttresses running from base to crest, interconnected and strengthened by horizontal braces. This is known as a "hollow" dam, and offers great resistance to the pressure of the water behind it while requiring a small amount of material in its construction.

BUTTRESSED MASONRY REINFORCED CONCRETE DAM. In connection with the use of reinforced concrete for engineering works, there was an interesting case of its employment in the construction of a small dam on the Raritan River at High Bridge, N. J., where a masonry dam, with concrete core and up-stream face, was reinforced with steel I beams. The dam is 210 feet long and 42 feet high, 4 feet thick at the crest and 16 feet thick at base. The outside wall is built of heavy, rough rubble, with a coping of DALAI LAMA. See CHINESE EMPIRE, His- cut stone. In front, on the down stream side, tory.

it is strengthened by cut stone buttresses, 6