CHILE railways. The largest expenditures are for the debt, army and navy, department of the interior, and public instruction. Foreign debt, December 31, 1909, £23,036,736; on December 31, 1910, £25,239,320. Internal debt at end of 1909, 15,659,344 pesos paper; outstanding paper currency, about 150,000,000 pesos. Total deposits in the banks, December 31, 1909, 394,614,515 pesos gold. 157 ARMY. The active army consists of 4 divisions, distributed territorially for moblization, and each comprises the three arms of the service. The establishment is estimated at about 18,000 men, which in time of war could be in Icreased to about 150,000 men. By including a part of the National Guard the entire war strength is estimated at 350,000 men, out many of these have received little or no military train ing. In 1910 there were 10 regiments of infantry; 8 of cavalry; 20 batteries of field artillery, one mountain battery, 2 battalions of mounted infantry and a corps of engineers. While all able-bodied citizens are liable to service in the army, the annual quota for the active army is only about 17,000. NAVY. In 1910 the navy included 3 armored battleships, aggregating 19,000 tons; 1 armored cruiser (7000 tons); 4 protected cruisers (14,500 tons); 4 torpedo gunboats (1470 tons); 7 torpedo-boat destroyers (2270 tons); 5 firstclass torpedo boats (728 tons); and several auxiliary vessels. It was reported that on August 30, 1910, the government asked for bids on the construction of two 25,000-ton battleships having a speed of 23 knots. GOVERNMENT. The executive authority is vested in a president, elected for five years and assisted by a responsible council of state and a responsible ministry. The legislative power devolves upon a congress of two houses, the Senate (32 members) and the Chamber of Deputies (94). The President for the term beginning September 18, 1906, was Pedro Montt. He died August 16, 1910, and was succeeded by the Vice-President, Elias Fernández Albano. Señor Albano died September 6 and, under the Constitution, the executive duties were assumed by Emiliano Figueroa, the Minister of Justice. Subsequently a new incumbent was chosen on November 15 in the person of Ramón Barros Luco, who was inaugurated December 23, 1910. CHINESE EMPIRE made by Chile. When the Chilean government commanded them to do so, they refused and the government thereupon forbade them to minister and closed the churches. The priests, however, officiated in secret and the Chilean government in March asked them to leave the country. Peru retorted by withdrawing her diplomatic representatives, and in April made a formal demand for arbitration. The President, Señor Pedro Montt (q. v.), who had held office since 1906, died at Bremen on August 16 and Señor Elias Fernández Albano, Vice-President, who was acting as chief executive in his absence, continued in that capacity, but he in turn died on September 6, when the campaign for the election of President was going on. Señor Ramón Barros Luco, a Liberal, was chosen. The Minister of Justice, Señor Figueroa, was acting President in the interval. In June it was announced that the Chamber of Deputies had authorized the President to place a loan of $20,000,000 for new warships and naval defense. Early in July Congress voted for defense purposes the sum of 22,400,000. On September 13, Chile signed an arbitration treaty with Argentina. The centennial anniversary of Chilean independence was celebrated on September 18. For an account of the arbitration of the Alsop case, see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. CHINESE EMPIRE. A monarchy of eastern Asia. The capital is Peking. AREA AND POPULATION. The area in square miles, and the population, are stated as follows (the first column for population being the Chinese estimate of 1902; the second, an estimate accepted by many as more nearly accurate): During 1910 there was some discussion of the size of the Chinese population and of the enorHISTORY. The long-standing difficulty with mous discrepancies existing between various estiPeru over the status of Tacna and Arica, may mates. It is now believed generally that the be summarized as follows: According to the traditional figure 400,000,000 is far too high treaty of October 20, 1883, after the war be- and that even 300,000,000 may be regarded as tween the two countries, Chile was to keep Tacna the maximum, although in 1906 the Chinese Imand Arica and to administer these provinces perial Customs put the total at 438,214,000. In with her own officers and under her own laws 1904, the American minister at Peking, after until a plebiscite should decide to which coun- careful inquiry, estimated the population of try the natives of the provinces wished to at- China proper at 270,000,000. In 1909, a house tach themselves. This plebiscite was to be sub- census, ordered by the government, showed about sequently determined by a special protocol be- 27,000,000 habitations, not including those in tween the two governments. Though there Mongolia, Tibet, the Amur, Shansi, Kwangsu, seemed a prospect of adjustment in 1908, the and Szechuan. It appeared that there was a affair was still left in an indeterminate state not unnatural tendency on the part of the peoand has continued to cause much friction. In ple to conceal the truth, on account of their 1910, difficulty arose over the ecclesiastical apprehension that the taking of a census prequestion. Chilean priests appointed by the gov- ludes an increase of taxation. Allowing that ernment to minister to Chilean residents were concealments to the extent of one-fifth took unable to perform their duties because the place, it appears that the number of houses is Peruvian Bishop of Arequipa, claiming jurisdic- not more than 33,000,000, which, at the rate tion, refused his spiritual sanction. The Bishop of 5.5 persons per house, gives a population of also objected to the requirement that Peruvian less than 182,000,000. To this must be added priests should apply to the Chilean government the population of the six districts excluded for the right to minister, which requirement was above, and among them Szechuan alone has been estimated to have 40,000,000 inhabitants. Still it would seem that the total population of the empire does not greatly exceed 270,000,000. The number of houses in Peking and its suburbs is returned at 251,014, which represents a population of about 1,400,000. In Manchuria, the province of Feng-tien is credited with 803,390 houses (upwards of 4,400,000 inhabitants), and Kirin with 736.480 houses (about 4,050,000). Estimates, by the Imperial Customs, for the larger treaty ports are (1908): Canton, 900,000; Hankow, 820,000; Tientsin, 800,000; Shanghai, 651,000; Foochow, 624,000; Chungking, 610,000; Soochow, 500,000. In 1909 the number of foreigners living in the treaty ports was upwards of 88,000, of whom over 55,000 were Japanese. The three recognized religions are Confucianism (the state religion), Buddhism, and Taoism. Native adherents of religions properly foreign to China include about 30,000,000 Coal, Mohammedans (probably this estimate is too high), 1,000,000 Roman Catholics, and 150,000 Protestants. are " 66 Dyes, Woolen goods. Including cotton yarn, valued in 1909 at 63,920,000Hk. taels. Leading exports in thousands of Hk. taels: Silk* Tea EDUCATION. There three classes schools-the old-style schools, the mission schools, and the institutions which are being established by the government pursuant to the Imperial decree of September 3, 1905. The oldstyle schools are private institutions whose curriculum is practically confined to the Chinese classics, examination in which, for state employment, was abolished by the above-mentioned deExports cree. This decree, which has given an enormous impetus to the movement for "Western Beans, bean-cake. learning," provides for an elaborate system of education, modeled on that of Japan. Naturally considerable time must elapse before the system is satisfactorily developed, but already results are very encouraging. The missions conduct a large number of schools from primary to collegiate rank; in 1907, the reported number of mission primary pupils was 42,546 and of pupils in higher mission schools 15,137. Besides the Imperial University at Peking, which is a government institution with European, Japanese, and Chinese professors, there are various schools or colleges for higher and technical instruction. INDUSTRIES. China proper is a distinctively agricultural country. In the north, the principal crops are wheat, barley, corn, millet, and other cereals, and beans and peas; in the south, rice, sugar, indigo, and cotton. Tea and silk cocoons are important products, the former in the west and south, the latter in every province. About 27 per cent. of the world's supply of raw silk comes from China. Large amounts of opium have been produced, but, pursuant to government decree, the output is being restricted and, it is expected, will cease entirely by 1916. The opium question will be discussed at an international conference at The Hague in 1911. The country is rich in minerals, but for the most part they are little exploited. Those worked to a greater or less degree include coal, tin, iron, antimony, lead, zinc, copper, and salt. Of the metals, tin (in Yunnan) and iron are the most important. Manufacturing, in the Western sense, is comparatively small, but the textile and iron industries in particular are showing considerable development. The number of spindles in operation in 1909 is placed at 750,000. COMMERCE. Imports for consumption and ex raw. Cotton, Sesame Wool Oil Fireworks Paper Medicines *Including raw silk, valued in 1909 at 71,154,000Hk. taels. in thousands of Hk. taels: Countries Japan British India Netherlands 1,774 France Italy Total Re-exports Net total Domestic exports by countries, in thousands of Hk. taels: 96,919 35,939,917. The last figure comprehended im1909 port duties, 14,084,736 Hk. taels; export duties, 51,558 12,335,675; coasting-trade duties, 2,016,506; ton40,433 nage, 1,276,218; transit, 1,920,817; opium likin, 38,598 3,905,965. Toward the end of 1910 a report 32,446 19,579 was current that the government was hard 8,851 pressed in devising means to meet an apparent 7,529 deficit of some 75,000,000 Hk. taels. It appeared 5,070 4,813 that further external loans were regarded as 4,800 dangerous in inviting foreign hold on the 4,674 country, and inreased taxation seemed inpractic4,672 able. 2,917 According to this report the foreign 1,920 debts had reached a total of £155,040,372 1,254 ($754,303,970). The latest available complete statement of the debt (March 2, 1908) is as 11,763 follows: £38,839,600 ($189,012,913); 499,978,338,993 000 francs ($96,495,754); 452,653,000 Hk. taels ($294,224,450); total, $579,733,017. 1,204 The trade with Hongkong and Macao is chiefly transit. The more salient features of the foregoing tables are the expansion of exports in 1909, the very rapid growth of the soy-bean and bean-cake industry, the remarkable development of both imports from and exports to Russia, and the continued unsatisfactory condition of the trade with the United States. SHIPPING. In 1908 and 1909, the entrances and clearances combined, including junks, in both the foreign and the coasting trade were as follows: Flag British Vessels Tons Vessels 34,406 Japanese 30,708 18,055 27,699 Chinese .136,663 16,946 135,053 German 5,496 6,586 5,854 French Other Total ..207,605 83,991 208,516 Tons 86,772 In 1908: steam, 86,600 vessels, of 77,955,525 tons, and sail, 121,005, of 6,035,764 tons; 1909: steam, 87,802 vessels, of 80,613,890 tons, and sail, 120,714, of 6,157,919 tons. The Haikwan tael, which is the unit of value used by the Maritime Customs, fluctuates in value with the price of silver, being worth 65.5 cents on July 1, 1908, 63.4 cents on July 1, 1909, 62.6 cents on December 31, 1909, and 67.3 on December 31 1910. The government has taken measures for the establishment of a uniform national coinage. See below, paragraph Currency Reform ARMY. Much interest attaches to the reorganization of the Chinese Army, which has been in progress since the promulgation of the law of January, 1905. China possesses a National army consisting of the active army and first and second reserve. The plan of organization 18,949 involves 37 divisions including all arms of the 17,861 service, and by 1913 it was expected that these 7,244 divisions would number 28,000 officers and 4,920 3,771 430,000 men of whom 380,000 would be available combatants. Service is voluntary and selected recruits are taken to serve for three years with the colors, after which there is optional and paid service in the first reserve for three years, followed by 4 years spent in the second reserve. In 1910 it was estimated that probably 20,000 soldiers had passed into this reserve. The training of the forces was being directed by Japanese officers, and military schools are maintained in the various provinces. During the year 1910, on the return of Prince Tao from America and Europe and the appointment of a new Minister of War, Yin-Chang, a number of military reforms were inaugurated, which met with approval on the part of the native press. The two most important reforms consisted of the creation of a War Council of Defense (Kium-che-wei-y-kin) and the placing of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth divisions under the direct orders of the Ministers of War, making them independent of the authority of the viceroys of the provinces. This last measure was expected to result in great economy, and it was an important feature in the unification of the new National army and afforded the central government a direct and quick means of control. Minor reforms involvFINANCE. No comprehensive statements of ing the centralization of power in the Peking revenue and expenditure are officially published. government were in progress, especially in conExcept the foreign maritime customs, most of nection with the uniform system of instruction the revenue is collected by provincial agents, and disbanding, reports to superior officers and and probably a considerable part of it remains the transfer to Peking of the school of gendar with the collectors. An unofficial estimate in merie from Taku, placing it under the orders 1901 placed the revenue and expenditure at 88,- of the War Minister. There was under dis200,000 and 101,120,000 Hk. taels respectively. cussion during the year a number of projected A 1908 estimate placed the revenue at 105.000,- reforms, of which the following were the more 000 Hk. taels. Receipts from customs: 1907, important: the creation of new divisions in 33,861,346 Hk. taels; 1908, 32,901,895; 1909, the army, 5 for Mongolia, 7 for Tibet, and COMMUNICATIONS. Roads in China are numerous, but generally in a poor state of repair. More important commercially are the rivers and canals, by means of which junks carry on an enormous amount of traffic. Including the Manchurian lines, there were open to traffic in 1909 about 4700 miles of railway; in 1910, about 4840 miles. New lines and extensions embracing a large mileage are under construction, and many others projected. Telegraphs (1909): miles of line, 26,413; of wire, 43,011; offices, 490. Posts (1909): offices, 4258; pieces handled, 344,197,000. The postal service has been much developed during the last three years. Letters can be sent throughout the 18 provinces at a uniform rate of two cents per half ounce. Postal lines have been extended as far as Tibet. A money order system is in operation through out China proper, and an express delivery service in the large cities. Cavalry Artillery, with 780 guns. Train Total Of these 152,556 were considered sufficiently well trained and organized to conduct themselves creditably in the field. Sungaria, 2 for Manchuria, so that with the steps were taken in 1907 and 1908 toward 36 divisions in progress of formation, there the establishment of parliamentary governwould be eventually 50 divisions. An official ment. In the former year commissioners went was appointed to supervise the establishment of to Germany, Great Britain, and Japan to these organizations on the frontiers. Another study the constitutional systems of those counimportant reform contemplated was an army tries and a government council was appointed separation of the Siun-tang-toci, or bands of to make a preliminary report on the establishpolice and the transfer of their functions to vari- ment of a regular Parliament. A plan for a ous divisions of the Lou-kiun or active regular National Assembly was outlined in an Imperial army. Much sympathy with these reforms was decree on September 20, 1907. On July 22, 1908, manifested by the press and the spirit of young an Imperial decree was issued providing for China, though there was considerable opposition. Provincial Assemblies deliberative in character, The Chinese Army consisted in 1910 of the and serving as a basis for a future Parliament. new National active army (Lou-Kiun), the On August 27, 1908, the Imperial government auxiliary or police forces (Siun-fang-toei), the issued a decree definitely outlining a constituforce of modern police (Siun-king-kiun), con- tion and promising the establishment of a tingents of the Manchurian banners (Pa-k'i), Parliamentary system within nine years. In remains of the old army of the Green Flags 1909 elections were held for the new Provincial (Lou-Yng), rural militia (Toan-lien), Mongolian Assemblies which met in October of that year. and Tibetan contingents; river troops (Choei- Meanwhile the regulations to govern the new che-ying and Choei-che-Kiun K'ing). A complete National Assembly had received Imperial apsystem of military education had been intro- proval on August 23. On May 9, 1910 an Imduced and student officers were being sent to Ja- perial decree announced the inaugural meeting pan for study and service with Japanese troops. of the new body for October 3, on which date it The effective and combatant strength actually was opened by the Prince Regent. It had adserving with the colors in 1910 was as follows: visory powers only. It was to form the nucleus Infantry, with 74 machine guns of variof the Houses of Parliament, for though consistous types .117,500 ing of a single Chamber, it comprised elements 8,240 which might well divide into two houses, 13,700 namely, representatives of the privileged 6,875 classes and representatives of the Provincial 6,000 Assemblies. Subjects within the competence of the new body are as follows: Financial ques152,556 tions, including the national receipts and revenue, preparation of the budget, taxation, public debts, legal questions, that is to say, consideration of new codes, which, however, must receive Imperial approval before discussion by the Assembly; and also such questions as may be referred to the body by the Emperor. Any resolution agreed upon by the Assembly must receive Imperial sanction before having legal effect and must also have been framed in consultation with the Grand Council or with one of the Ministers. If either of the latter should disagree with the Assembly, both opinions must be referred to the Emperor for decision. As to the relations of the National and Provincial Assemblies, the former is to decide any matters upon which the Provincial Assemblies and the Governors cannot reach an agreement or upon complaints against any viceroy or governor, this decision to be subject to Imperial sanction. Petitions may be received from Chinese subjects through members from the same portion of the country. The expenses of the members are to be defrayed by the government. Should members disobey the command to attend sessions or should the National Assembly pass resolutions injurious to the public order or bring the government into contempt, the body may be dissolved. On October 23 it was announced that the new National Assembly had joined unanimously in supporting the demand for the calling of an official Parliament. Seven years must still elapse, according to the gov ernment programme, before the constitutional system was completed with the establishment of a full Parliament, but the popular movement for hastening this result had been gaining force rapidly during recent months. After debating the question, the Assembly finally decided upon a memorial to the Crown, urging the immediate assembling of a Parliament. On receiving this memorial an Imperial edict was NAVY. The navy in 1910 was reported to include 4 cruisers (one of 4300 tons and 3 of about 3000 tons each), various miscellaneous vessels (incuding 8 old cruisers), several old torpedo boats, dispatch boats, etc., and about 20 modern gunboats. Two small cruisers (2400 tons each) were under construction in England. About the end of 1910 the government awarded a contract for the construction in the United States of a second-class cruiser of between 4000 and 5000 tons to cost upwards of $1,000,000. GOVERNMENT. The authority of the sovereign is limited or modified by certain advisory bodies, as the Grand Council, the Government Council, and (since 1907) the Senate, and by the powerful provincial viceroys. An edict of August 24, 1908, promised a constitution and Parliament in 1917. Deliberative Provincial Assemblies, which were encouraged by the government for their educative value, met for the first time in October, 1909. In 1910 the demand for representative government increased, and late in the year it was announced that the constitution, the law of election, and the law relating to the parlimentary houses would be promulgated in July, 1911, that the general election would take place in May, 1912, and that the Parliament would be opened early in 1913. The historic system of examination in the Chinese classics for political preferment has been abolished since 1905. The Emperor KwangHsu died August 14, 1908. He was succeeded on November 14 by his brother's son, Pu-yi, who was born February 11, 1906. The Emperor's father, Prince Chun, is Regent. HISTORY BEGINNINGS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERN MENT. It will be remembered that definite issued ordering the Government Council to consider it. An address by Prince Yu-lang before the Assembly on October 31, declared that the whole nation agreed in desiring an early meeting of Parliament. This was interpreted as proof that the government would accede to the request and was received with great enthusiasm. After agreeing at first to shorten the interval to three years, the Imperial government acceded to the Assembly's renewed request for the immediate summoning of Parliament and issued an edict directing that preparations be made for calling the new body. There was a violent discussion in the Assembly on November 22, on account of the alleged encroachment on the National body's rights by the Grand Council, and the House finally decided unanimously to appoint a committee to draft a protest against the action of the Council and lay it before the throne. The Assembly later adopted a memorial, declaring that the powers of the Grand Council were now undefined and unless it was made answerable to the people the formation of a responsible cabinet was necessary. The proposal was rejected. Thereupon the Assembly prepared a fresh memorial condemning the acts of members of the Council and demanding that that body should be made responsible to the people. On December 25 an Imperial edict ordered the Constitutional Bureau to prepare at once a constitutional programme including a plan for a cabinet. This was taken as evidence that the government would yield to the demands of the reformers. TROUBLE WITH TIBET. Early in January serious complaints were made of the brutalities of Chinese troops in Tibet, who were accused of destroying certain monasteries and desecrating others, and of killing a number of the Lamas. After the Younghusband mission, provisional governors or Ambans were appointed to administer the Tibetan government by the Chinese authorities. In 1909 a body of Chinese troops were dispatched to the Szechuan frontier where they put down with some severity the resistance of the Lamas. Upon the Dalai Lama's return to Lhassa, having, it is said, Imperial authority for assuming supreme control, a conflict of jurisdiction arose between him and the two Ambans at Lhassa. The rule of the Ambans was opposed by the Tibetans on the ground that it was arbitrary, and disregarded the wishes of the natives. Altogether, there were six Chinese mandarins holding the office of Amban in various parts of Tibet. The petitions of the natives to the Chinese government and to Lord Minto for redress of the alleged grievances were unavailing and the threat was made that if the Ambans and the troops were not withdrawn, a revolt would follow. The Chinese forces in Tibet were estimated at 25,000. In February the Dalai Lama fled from Lhassa to India, apparently en route to Peking, and on February 22 Chinese troops occupied Lhassa. After his arrival in India it was announced in March that an edict from Peking had been issued, deposing him and stripping him of all his dignities. It was alleged by the Dalai Lama and his supporters that the Amban in Lhassa to whom he had complained of the atrocities of the Chinese on the Szechuan frontier, the killing of the Lamas and the sacking of monasteries, had disregarded his authority, and called upon the Chinese troops to enter Lhassa. Great Britain and Japan jointly urged on the Chinese CHINESE EMPIRE government the need of maintaining peace on the Anglo-Tibetan border. RAILWAYS. For an account of the proposals of the United States government for the neutralization of the Manchurian railways, see UNITED STATES, paragraphs on Foreign Relations, and, JAPAN, paragraphs on History. Japan had raised objections to the Chinese project of a railway from Chinchow-Fu to Sigun,and the French and British governments advised China not to go on with it, without the approval of Japan and Russia. On February 16, 1910, Japan withdrew her objections on condition that Japan should participate in the financing and building of the line, and that China should subsequently build a line connecting it with the Southern Manchurian railway. The demand supported by the United States government, that American capital should participate in the Hankow-Szechuan railway loan had been conceded in 1909, and on May 24, 1910, the four groups of financiers interested signed an agreement whereby the loan was shared equally by American, French, German, and English capital. A postal agreement between China and Japan in February restored to China her monopoly of mail carrying on her own lines and gave her equal rights with Japan over Japanese railways. CURRENCY REFORM. The Imperial government issued a decree on May 24, commanding that the unit of national currency should be the yuan or dollar and that the temporary standard should be silver. It prescribed the weight of the dollar and defined the nature of the sudsidiary coinage. It provided for the gradual calling in of the old coinage and required that after one year payments of taxes and of all government charges should be made in the new currency. The Peking bankers agreed to cooperate with the government in carrying out its plan. A group of American financiers acting under the encouragement of the United States government offered to loan $50,000,000 at 5 per cent. to the Chinese government in furtherance of its currency scheme, and in connection with the loan it was proposed that an American financial adviser should be appointed at Peking. A preliminary agreement covering the loan was made toward the end of the year, and the United States government received assurances that an American adviser would be engaged. OPIUM TRAFFIC. According to the regulations decreed by the Chinese government in 1906, the cultivation of the poppy and the taking of opium should cease gradually within a period of ten years and cultivation of the poppy should be reduced at the rate of one-tenth a year. The rules also provided for the registry of opium users, of opium shops, of sales, etc., and prohibited the use of opium by teachers, soldiers, and sailors. In 1907 an agreement was reached with the British government whereby 51,000 chests were taken as the standard of annual exportation from India, and from this quantity there was to be an annual diminution of 5100 chests with a view to bringing the traffic to an end after ten years. In 1909 at the intervention of the United States government an International Conference on the Opium Trade was held at Shanghai. It passed a number of important resolutions, urging the government to inquire into the best means of curing the opium habit and into the general medical aspects of the question, declaring that the Chinese |