whether the offspring may be a hybrid. From this he concludes that we must not regard the hereditary characteristics of the living body as due to paired determinants more or less isolated from other determinants in the body, but to the organic substance of which the body is composed, taken as a whole, the whole being affected and more or less modified by external factors. Spill man showed that we might have true Mendelian phenomena without assuming unit characters, on the hypothesis that the character of a cell may be of one or another sort, according to the relative amount of chemical changes going on in it. Thus color may be due to the action of an enzyme on a chromogen. If the relative amounts of the two substances vary, we get color variations. We may get, for example, red or white, not because of a red unit opposed to, or replacing a white, but because the enzyme action on the chromogen may give either red or white dependent on the relative amounts of the two substances present. ferences as those which characterized their parents. Since in a warm-blooded animal the germ plasm could not be affected by the temperature of the atmosphere outside the body, it looked as if there might have been a direct inheritance of bodily modifications. This conclusion is suggested in a very tentative way by Sumner, who recognized that other interpretations are possible, and proposed to continue his results further. 66 PARASITIC CASTRATION. Wheeler studied the effects of parasitic castration in Polistes metricus parasitized by Xenos. This condition is a frequent one, 1000 specimens of Polistes from western Connecticut showing more than 25 per cent. of infection. The only visible effect of the parasite on the host was a slight color change, secondary sex characters not being affected, thus a very different result from what happens in crustacea and vertebrates. Wheeler concludes from a general survey of the effects of various forms of castration in insects that COLOR VARIATIONS. Mr. and Mrs. Davenport primary and secondary sex characters are very continued their study of heredity in a paper on loosely correlated during ontogenetic developthe heredity of Skin Color in Man, using data ment, or in a very different manner from what obtained from a study of crossings between the they are in vertebrates or even in crustacea. negro and white races. Their general conclusion... The insect egg not only has its primary was that skin pigmentation in crosses between sexual characters determined long before ferthe two races is not a typical blend, but that tilization, and independently of the later nuclear the original grades of dark and light coloration or chromosomal phenomena, but even the secsegregate in the germ cells. Johnson, in a pub- ondary sexual characters are in some manner lication of the Carnegie Institution on the also predetermined at this early stage." "Evolution in Color Pattern of Lady Beetles," ZOOLOGY. concluded that color variations are both continuous and discontinuous; that the pattern is capable of being modified by the environment; some of these modifications being inherited, others not; that Jordan's law in evolution (New species arise only through isolation) is not followed, since species overlap to a great extent, and that natural selection, if active at all, is principally conservative of the color pattern. He thought that there was a form of determinate variation largely actuated by the effect of the environment on the germ plasm which was accomplishing a marked evolution of the color pattern. That evolution has progressed in definite lines without the selection of chance variations is claimed by Morgan, who thinks that this is due to the fact that organisms respond to environmental conditions, and that each response in a definite direction tends so to modify the protoplasm that it may respond more readily to later stimulus in the same direction. Clark, in Ophiuroids, showed that closely related species occur in the same locality, thus in contradiction to Jordan's law. He thought that some form of physiological selection was responsible for the change of species in this case. a TRANSMISSION OF ARTIFICIAL MODIFICATIONS. Sumner tested the question whether artificially produced modifications in an animal tend to reappear in the offspring, by a series of observations on mice. A number of individuals kept in warm room were found to differ from those kept in the cold in a number of characters, the warm room" mice having on the whole longer tails, feet and ears than the "cold room." Mice living under these conditions were removed as soon as they became pregnant to a common room, so that their offspring were born and reared under precisely similar temperature conditions. The offspring showed, with some exceptions, though to a less degree, the same dif See BIOMETRICS. See BIOLOGY. BISMUTH. See ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Im BJÖRNSON, BJÖRNSTJERNE. A Norwegian poet, dramatist and novelist, died April 26, 1910. He was born at Kvikne in 1832, the son of a Lutheran pastor. His childhood was passed in Kvikne, Romsdal, and Molde, in noble sceney, rich in legendary associations. He studied at the University of Christiania, but left before graduation to work as a journalist, having already written sketches and reviews of plays. In 1857 he published his first drama, Between the Battles, and in the following year his first novel, Synnöre Solbakken, translated into English as Trust and Trial. He was made director of the theatre in Bergen and from 1860 to 1863 traveled on a government stipend, chiefly in Italy. After the latter year he resided, for the most part, in Norway, with frequent visits to Paris, son. BJÖRNSON 101 BLACKWELL BLACK FLIES. See ENTOMOLOGY. BLACKFOOT INDIANS. See ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Rome and Munich. He lectured in the United States in the winter of 1880-81. His chief fame was as a novelist and dramatist, but he wrote ballads and lyrical compositions of great beauty. BLACKWELL, ELIZABETH. The first woman His dramas covered questions of politics and to receive a medical degree in the United States, religion, domestic relations and social condi- died June 1, 1910. She was born in Bristol, tions. His great work was completed many Eng., in 1821, daughter of Samuel Blackwell, years before his death and, therefore, for a long who emigrated to America with his family in period he has been known and though of 1832. He was a sugar refiner and established a as one of the great men of the Scandinavian refinery which, in 1838, was burned. He moved lands. In early life he was an intimate friend to Cincinnati, hoping to introduce there the of Ibsen, but they drifted so far apart as to cultivation of beet sugar and so strike a blow at be almost enemies. Fifteen years previous to slavery by making the Southern cane sugar Björnson's death, however, there was a recon- plantations unprofitable. His plans were interciliation and his eldest daughter married Ibsen's rupted by death and he left his family dependent He was a great champion of his race, of upon their own exertions. Elizabeth Blackwell, Norwegian genius and of the restoration of the with the help of her mother and two sisters, native tongue in its integrity. He organized opened a school and began at once to take an public lectures in furtherance of Norwegian art. active part in the anti-slavery and higher educaIn his early years he accepted the theological tion of women movements. Miss Blackwell took views of elementary Christianity, but after a charge of a district school in Henderson, Ky., tour of study in foreign countries and after he where she was brought into direct contact with had acquainted himself with the thought of slavery. Her views on the subject made her posiDarwin, Spencer, Mill, Taine and others, tion impossible and she resigned after teaching through their works, his writings took a Dar- one term. She became impressed with the need for winian and psychological tinge and he entered women physicians and at once began an attempt politics as a social reformer. He became promi- to secure a medical education. She found it imnent in the election campaigns and was eloquent possible to obtain admission into a medical in addressing the people. In 1870 he advocated school and in 1845 began the study of medicine the union of Norway with France. Later he led privately under Rev. John Dickson who kept the National Radical party and at one time a school in Asheville, N. C., where she was wished Norway to become an independent re- engaged as a teacher; and after studying anatpublic. In all his works, whether rural novels, omy under Dr. Allen in Philadelphia, she apheroic drama, plays or songs, the elements of plied for admission to the four medical colleges grandeur, beauty and charm are present. Many of that city, all of which refused to admit her. of his plays deal with social problems. In A The medical schools of New York City also Glove he spoke for equality of standards in the refused to open their doors to a woman, but morals of the sexes, while in The Editor he after repeated applications she was admitted to satirized the press and in The King attacked the medical school at Geneva, N. Y., where she the institution of monarchy. He exposed the graduated at the head of her class in 1849. She lack of honor in the financial world in The studied later with her sister Emily in Paris Banker. In 1903 he received the Nobel prize and London, and in the latter city formed for literature. He was the chief novelist, prob- friendships with Lady Byron and Florence ably the chief poet, and, with Ibsen, the chief Nightingale. In 1851 she returned to New York dramatist of his country's history. His shorter City and began to practice. It was then conpoems were published in Poems and Ballads sidered highly improper for a woman to be a (1870), and in the same year appeared his only doctor and she was ostracized, even having diffiepic poem, Arnljot Gelline. From that time he ficulty in renting office room. Her patients wrote little verse. His early novels include came slowly, and not being allowed to practice Arne (1858); A Happy Boy (1860), and The in the dispensaries, she started one of her own, Fisher Maiden (1868). These deal with rural with her sister Emily, who had received her life and are primitive pastorals, genuine yet degree in medicine from the Western Reserve modern. The dramas of the earlier years are University in 1854. This institution was called based on the native sagas, with the exception of the New York Infirmary for Women and ChilMary Stuart in Scotland (1864) and The Newly dren, and was the first hospital in this country Wedded Pair (1866). The drama of his second to be conducted by women. Most of the patients period began with The Editor (1874) and in- were drawn from the very poor, but in time cluded A Bankruptcy (1875); The King the institution became a flourishing one. (1877); Leonardo (1879); The New System the outbreak of the Civil War Dr. Blackwell (1879); A Glove (1883); Beyond our Strength called a meeting to consider means to provide (1883); Geography and Love (1885); Paul trained nurses for the army, and from this Lange and Tora Parsberg (1898); Laboremus meeting grew the National Sanitary Aid Asso(1901); At Storhove (1903); and Dagelannet ciation. Mindful of her struggle to obtain a (1904). His novels show the same evolution from The Bridal March (1873) through Magnhild (1877), Captain Mansana (1879), and Dust (1882), to the true problem novels The Heritage of the Kurts (1884) and In God's Way (1889), the former dealing with redemption from heredity through education and the latter with bigotry and liberal thought. This brought on Björnson severe criticism from the orthodox, although his avowed aim was to exalt and purify religion. Many of his novels were translated into English. At medical education, and there being still no medical college for women in the United States, she founded the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, which was afterwards merged with the Cornell Medical College when that institution opened its doors to women. In 1869 Dr. Blackwell returned to England and practiced in London and Hastings. She founded the National Health Society of London and assisted in founding the London School of Medicine for Women. In addition to lecturing on medical and educational topics she wrote many books and pamphlets, among them Moral Education of the Young, The Human Element in Sex, The Influence of Women in Medicine, Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women and The Physical Education of Girls. She was the sister of Henry B. Blackwell, the famous abolitionist. BLACKWELL, EMILY. An American physician, died September 8, 1910. She was born in Bristol, Eng., in 1826. She began a course of medical reading and dissection at Cincinnati College when she was twenty-two years of age. She was already proficient in Latin, German and French. She taught school and earned money enough to enable her to study medicine. In 1851 she was refused admission at the Geneva Medical School at which her sister Elizabeth (see above) had been allowed to study. She was refused at ten other schools. She finally succeeded in obtaining admission to the free hospital of Bellevue, N. Y., and after an interval was received by the Western Reserve University, where she finished her course. She studied at Edinburgh and attended the clinics and lectures of the greatest surgeons in Paris. She was associated with her sister in the foundation of hospitals and dispensaries, and the chief professional events of their lives were shared together. common school education. He learned the trade of machinist and engaged in railway business in New Jersey. From 1874 to 1884 he was superintendent of the New Jersey Southern Railroad and from 1884 was superintendent of the New York and Long Branch road. He was a member of the New Jersey legislature from 1878 to 1880 and was a delegate to the Democratic National conventions in 1880 and 1896. In 1887 he was elected United States Senator, serving until 1893. He was mayor of the city of Long Branch for five consecutive terms. BLOOD FLUKE. See TROPICAL DISEASES. BLUEBERRIES, DOMESTICATION OF. See HORTICULTURE. BLUE GUM FIBRE. See CHEMISTRY. BLUE HILL OBSERVATION. See METEOROLOGY. A BLUNT, RICHARD FREDERICK LEFEVRE. bishop of the Anglican Church, died January 23, 1910. He was born in Chelsea, Eng., in 1833, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School. He studied law but finally entered King's College, London, with a view to taking holy orders. He graduated in 1857 and became deacon the same year. He was ordained priest in 1858. In 1864 he was appointed to the benefice of Scarborough, which he held until 1905. He was appointed suffragan bishop of Hull in 1891. BLUTHER, JULIUS. See NECROLOGY. BOGOTÁ, RIOTS IN. See COLOMBIA. BOIS, JULES. See FRENCH LITERATURE. BOKHARA. A Russian vassal state in central Asia. Area, 83,000 square miles; population, about 1.250,000. Capital, Bokhara, with about 75,000 inhabitants; Karshi has 25,000; Khuzar, 10,000. The people are Mohammedans. Corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, hemp, and livestock (goats, sheep, horses, camels) are raised. Chief minerals, gold, salt, alum and sulphur. Imports from India: green tea (reported to average 1125 tons annually), indigo, textiles and drugs. Exports of raw silk to India are reported to average 34 tons yearly. Imports of spirituous liquors are forbidden by the ameer, except for use at the Russian embassy. The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway runs through Bokhara (about 186 miles). The city of Bokhara has telegraphic communication with Tashkent. The ameer, Sayid Abdul Ahad (born March 26, 1859; succeeded, 1885), died at the beginning of 1911; and was succeeded by his son, Sayid Mir Alim Khan (born 1880). The Russian political agent resides at Bokhara. BOILERS, REINFORCED CONCRETE SETTINGS. BLAKE, WILLIAM PHIPPS. American geologist and mineralogist, died May 22, 1910. He was born in New York City in 1826, and graduated from the Yale Scientific School in 1852, a member of the first class of the newly instituted department which later became the Sheffield Scientific School. After his graduation he became, in 1853, the geologist and mineralogist of the United States Pacific Railroad expedition, and in 1859-60 was editor of a mining magazine. In 1862 he went to Japan as a geologist in the service of the Japanese government and returned in the following year and explored the Stickeen River in Alaska, reporting the result of his expedition to Secretary Seward. In 1864 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology in the College of California. He received the appointment in 1871 as geologist of the United States Commission to Santo Domingo and in 1876 was commissioner to the Centennial Exhibition. From 1894 to 1905 he was director of the School of Mines of the University of Arizona and from 1905 to the time of his death was professor emeritus. From 1898 he served as territorial geologist. He was a member of many American and foreign scientific societies. He was the author of Geological Reconnaissance In the construction of boiler settings, reinof California (1885), Silver Ores and Silver Mines, Tombstone and its Mines, Ceramic Art and Glass, and Life of Captain Jonathan Mix. He also contributed many papers and reports on technical subjects to scientific journals. BLAND, J. O. P. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, section Poetry and Drama. BLAST FURNACE. See COKE and GAS. BLAVET, ÉMILE RAYNER. See NECROLOGY. BLENNERHASSETT, LADY. See LITERA TURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, section Biography. BLIND, SCHOOLS FOR THE. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. BLOCK SIGNALING. See RAILWAYS. BLODGETT, RUFUS. An American public official, formerly United States Senator from New Jersey, died October 3, 1910. He was born in Dorchester, N. H., in 1834, and received a forced concrete as used instead of brick has proved not only a satisfactory substitute, but in many cases is found superior to it, provided, of course, the design is modified and the concrete made in the proportions to give best results under the conditions imposed for this kind of work. The setting should be built with double walls, 5 or 6 inches thick, with a 6-inch air space between. The concrete must be made in the proportion of cement 1, sand 2, and stone 4. It is important that a hard stone be used, trap-rock giving the best results for this purpose, as it makes the hardest, densest and highest heat-resisting concrete when used in the proportion above specified. No soft rock or limestone should ever be used, for, even though not directly exposed to the fire (fire-brick always being needed), any but the hardest rock will in time disintegrate from |