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Viewed as functional aspects of human life, these phenomena appear to be wholly appropriate material for the science of physiology. That they have not been considered other than casually is doubtless due to the difficulty of devising methods for their exact study, and the historical relation of conduct and experience to philosophy and to the experimental psychology which emerged from it.

It seems entirely fitting to ask, in view of this limitation of the scope of physiology and the dependence of medicine upon thoroughgoing and intimate knowledge of life processes, does medicine need a science of human behavior and experience as one of its fundamental or basic disciplines? A generation ago this question would have been answered in the negative by the majority of physicians, possibly even by many of those who were most intimately responsible for the development of physiology. At present, the situation is radically different, because it has become clear that the science of psychology has developed important methods and assembled a body of facts whose theoretical and practical importance can not safely be ignored. Demonstrations of the practical applications of mental measurement, as for example in the army, in educational institutions, in industry, in penal institutions, and in hospitals, have attracted the attention of intelligent physicians, and have caused many of them to take an aggressive and constructive attitude with respect to the relation of psychology to medicine. They will unhesitatingly give an affirmative reply to the important question which has been formulated, and will earnestly support their position by pointing out the vital importance of knowledge of human action and human experience in every practical situation which confronts the practitioner. Some of them may go so far

as to maintain that the average physician of to-day is quite as ignorant of the structure and functions of the human mind and of the activities through which experience gains expression, as were his predecessors of a thousand years ago of the structure and functions of the body. And they may further maintain that most physicians are entirely untrained in methods of observing and measuring human action and experience, and therefore unable to apply even the simple and well established procedures of practical mental measurement.

Assuming, then, that the medical profession recognizes its need of systematic knowledge of human behavior and experience and of the technique necessary to the acquirement and extension of such knowledge and its practical use, it is necessary to consider next whether psychology or any other existing discipline is prepared to meet this need, and if so, how it may best be done. This necessitates an examination of the status and meaning of psychology. It is unfortunately true that many intelligent and highly educated persons, among whom are some physicians, are confused and misled by the diverse developments of psychology. This is chiefly because psychical research, spiritualism, certain kinds or fragments of philosophy, mental telepathy, isolated products of introspection, and various methods of studying behavior and conduct, each and all claim the name psychology. It is inevitable that this state of affairs should confuse the person who, unacquainted with the problems of behavior and experience and likewise unfamiliar with the methods of solving them, views the manifestations of psychology as an interested observer. It should be remarked, however, that the situation is not essentially different from that in medicine, for there the disinterested observer notes the existence of

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numerous medical sects, each of which
more or less insistently and ostentatiously
claims for itself either a monopoly of what
is useful in medical practise or the most
fruitful of therapeutic methods. The lay-
man, consequently, has grave doubts and
misgivings about the trustworthiness of
the art of medicine and the adequacy of its
scientific basis, which are identical in prin-
ciple with those entertained by the phys-
ician for psychology. It is therefore very
much to the point to establish the fact that
there exists a genuinely reliable, thor-
oughly scientific, and progressive science
of behavior and experience, which rightly
claims the name psychology, just as there
is a reliable body of knowledge concerning
human form, function, and disease, which
is called medicine. The fact that the word
"regular" must be used by a certain
group of medical men to distinguish them-
selves from other medical sects should not
be overlooked in this connection, for what
is desirable or necessary in medicine hap-
pens to be equally so in psychology. It is
also true that the broadminded, genuinely
scientific psychologist is likely to be as
much offended by the name telepathist, or
spiritualist, as is the "regular" physician
by the name eclectic, or osteopathist.

There are at least five principal phases or aspects of modern psychology which deserve mention although they have widely differing significance for medicine. They may be designated as philosophical psychology, psychical research, introspective psychology, genetic psychology, and behaviorism.

Philosophy, not many generations ago, included all of the disciplines which are now called natural sciences. Psychology has been slowest to emancipate itself, chiefly because its phenomena are most difficult to study by scientific methods. From certain points of view, philosophical

psychology is quite as important as other aspect of the subject, but for present, at least, it need not especially cern medical education or medical p tise, and least of all should it be permi to obscure the development of psychol along lines similar to those followed the other natural sciences.

Despite claims to the contrary, psych research, and the spiritualistic deve ments of psychology, are too uncertai their facts and either too uncritical or reliable as to methods to be seriously sidered in connection with practical p lems. What may develop from or thro them it would be rash to attempt to dict, but it is obviously safe to main that they do not constitute the scienc psychology and lack immediately im tant significance for medicine.

The primary development of psycho and its center of reference is the psy ogy of the self. This is necessari product of introspection or self-obs tion. It is the aim of introspective chology to discover the elements of perience, to formulate the laws of combination, and to describe those plex phenomena which constitute That much has been achieved in this d tion must be evident to any intell person who reads attentively the wor leading introspective psychologists. cine can no more afford to neglect thi portant method of studying exper and its expressions than can educati any other art which works upon h material. But it is equally true tha trospective psychology may not fair profitably be accepted as the whole science.

The term genetic psychology has applied to the historical or developm description of behavior and exper which results from the application

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method of comparison to the materials of observation. In this branch of psychology, the development of behavior and of mind in the individual and also in the race is studied by means of objective methods similar to those of physiology, and by the method of self-observation whenever it is applicable. Genetic psychology is even more intimately related to the medical sciences and their practical applications than is introspective psychology.

The name behaviorism has been applied to a recent development which, in effect, is a revolt against the introspective method. By the application of objective methods identical with or similar to those of physiology, it undertakes to discover and describe the various phenomena of mental life and to formulate their laws. In its extreme form, it is merely the extension of physiology to include all types and aspects of human activity and experience. It may be pointed out in this connection that the science of physiology has made few attempts to study forms of activity other than reflexes. Behaviorism would alter this situation by subjecting instinctive, habitual, and voluntary actions to scientific analysis and measurement.

It has been asserted that the general science of psychology is neither psychical research, on the one hand, nor its logical extreme behaviorism, on the other hand. Instead, like medicine, it is inclusive of what is valuable in the methods and reliable in the results of all of its branches, aspects, or special developments. For psychology in its medical relations, the term psychobiology is proposed. This term suggests the study of experience as biological phenomenon. In introspective psychology, in genetic psychology, and in behaviorism, there is much that should be valuable to medicine. Assuming that it comprehended the important scientific procedures and the

established facts and principles of the several branches of psychology, psychobiology would constitute a natural bridge between physiology and psychiatry. On the one hand, it would appear as a mere extension of physiology to include human behavior and experience, and on the other hand, it would exhibit kinship to psychiatry in the utilization of the subjective or introspective method. Whether or not it be considered a distinct science, psychobiology would serve to link the basic functional science of physiology with neurology and psychiatry.

The history of medicine clearly enough indicates gradual emancipation from superstition and the slow achievement of that immense body of knowledge which renders medical treatment increasingly certain and safe. Throughout this history, mental disorders have been less intelligently, less scientifically, and less satisfactorily treated than have most others. One obvious reason for this condition of affairs is the lack in medical schools of any provision for the training of students in psychobiology. Medicine, by its passive attitude toward the development of this science, has permitted, if it has not also encouraged, the development of numerous one-sided and extreme sects whose avowed purpose is the cure of human ills by psychological means. There exist to-day several species of psychotherapy or psychological medicine, and, in addition, such religious movements as the Emmanuel Church Movement, which perhaps would not have developed and certainly would not have flourished so remarkably had medicine provided in its schools and hospitals for the development of psychobiology as it has for the development of physiology.

Granted that medicine needs psychobiology, and that the status of the science, although unsatisfactory in many respects, is

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nection with such topics as the ana instinctive activities; the develd modification, and integration of the nature and significance of ide types; the discovery of peculiari defects of behavior and experience. larly in connection with practical biological measurement, the medic dent might be given opportunity to or develop methods of measuring a of behavior and experience in relat diagnosis and treatment. Important of practical psychological tests migl be exhibited in their relations to m aspects of hygienic, industrial, and tional problems.

III. As an extension of psychob toward psychiatry, special lectures laboratory exercises dealing with aty abnormal, or pathological behavior an perience could be provided. These ultimately be expected to develop a systematic course in psychopath which should be carefully correlated the established medical instructio neurology and psychiatry. In this connection, as a method of suppleme such practical and research activiti are referred to in the preceding parag psychobiological methods might be I at the service of the neurological and chiatric clinics, for psychology has al developed a considerable array of me whose diagnostic value in neuropsych practise has been definitely establishe

IV. Another important field of s for psychobiology is preventive me and hygiene. Here, research in conn with the characteristics and variatio behavior and experience which are s cant of undesirable or dangerous ne or mental tendencies is particular point, although didactic lectures migh be offered to advantage. Thus ps biology might be utilized increasing

the partial scientific basis of mental hygiene.

It is the conviction of the writer that urgent need exists for pioneering in psy chobiology as a basic medical science. It has already been suggested that this pioneering should be done in a medical environment, for by taking the matter into its own hands the medical faculty should be able to secure, more quickly and satisfactorily than otherwise, those developments and applications of psychobiology which are clearly desirable. It will not suffice to meet the general needs of medicine, if psychopathology instead of, rather than in addition to, the more inclusive discipline psychobiology, is established in leading medical schools. For it is quite as improbable that the medical student will acquire adequate training in psychobiology during his premedical years as that he will acquire similarly adequate training in physiology or in anatomy.

There are three important possibilities. with respect to the administrative relations of psychobiology in medical schools. The subject may be treated as a part of physiology, it may be established independently, or it may be associated with neurology and psychiatry. For the sake of its development as a fundamental discipline, it would appear preferable to have it either associated with physiology or given an independent status during the experimental stage of its development in a medical environment. To place it with physiology would tend to lessen administrative problems and to simplify the organization of instruction and arrangements for research, but, on the other hand, it should be recognized that the clinical relations of psychobiology are likely to be much more numerous and compelling than those of physiology and to make it more and more truly the connecting link be

tween physiology and psychiatry. For the former subject, it must always appear as a logical extension of its field of interest; for the latter, as an essential part of its scientific basis.

ROBERT M. YERKES

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, WASHINGTON, D. C.

SCIENTIFIC EVENTS

MEDICAL EDUCATION IN CHINA1

RECENT reports state that in all China there are found to be less than 2,000 physicians. What a small proportion of the population of 400,000,000 Chinese people can receive scientific treatment in case of illness or injury! In an effort to ascertain the exact number of students looking toward medicine, if not also to stimulate the youth of China to look toward the practise of medicine, a survey has recently been made of the middle schools of China. In 153 of the institutions reporting, there are 36,095 students, and of these 1,153 stated that they were planning to study medicine. Since this is only about 20 per cent. of all middle schools, the total number who may enter on the study of medicine will be considerably larger.

The Rockefeller Foundation is said to have abandoned its purpose of erecting at Shanghai a great medical school similar to the Union Medical College at Peking. This decision is said to be due to the fact that in its initial session the college had a class of only seven students, although $6,000,000 had been expended for its construction and maintenance. This small attendance is said to be due to the fact that the medical course is given in the English language and that only a small number of the universities and schools in the neighborhood of Peking emphasize their courses in English. The situation is said to be quite different at Shanghai, where English is more generally taught, which will insure larger numbers of Chinese medical students. In order to provide a clear field when a large

1 From the Journal of the American Medical Association.

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