neighbor, except that nearly all have settled down in the belief that, whatever may be its nature, the causes are beyond their control; and hence the evil must be submitted to, as one of the "dispensations of Providence." Some, however, are not willing to settle down upon such conclusions; and, as one of that number, it will be our aim to demonstrate, if possible, by facts and arguments, that the evil can be, in a great degree, if not entirely avoided, when farmers will properly investigate the operations of Nature, and rightly interpret and reduce to practice the lessons which she teaches.

Let us, then, kind readers, take up this subject in a reasonable and philosophical way; lay aside all our old theories, and go to work and examine facts; for the great error with most men in regard to such matters is, they begin by forming in their minds a theory, and then look for facts merely to support their theory. The consequence is, they fail to observe facts of an opposite character, and of course seldom arrive at the truth. First, then, let us examine

What is the nature of the disease, or rust ?-We find that farmers are no more agreed on this point, than in regard to its cause, or the means of its prevention. A multitude of theories have been advanced, and some of them ingeniously argued; though, as we shall presently show, not sustained by facts. It would be useless for us to devote the space that would be necessary to examine or define these different theories; so we will only mention one that seems to be most common-namely, that, owing to the state of the weather, or some other causes, the roots of the wheat absorb a greater amount of sap than can be properly elaborated or disposed of by the plant, and consequently the straw bursts or splits, and the sap exudes; that the rust which is seen on the straw is merely the dried sap, or, as some hold, a species of fungus that takes root in the exuded sap; in either case, regarding it (the rust) as the effect or attendant of the disease, and not the disease itself. Some have carried this theory further, and believed that the disease was owing to the oxide of iron being absorbed from the soil by the roots, and poisoning the plant, causing the stem to burst, and giving the appearance of rust to the exuded sap. But the fallacy of this supposition was soon shown by careful analysis of the rust itself, proving that it does not contain a particle of iron.

But what, then, are the fucts respecting the nature of the disease? The annexed engraving, with a few explanatory remarks, will furnish an answer to this question, that we think must be plain and conclusive to every mind.

The examination of diseased wheat straw, by the aid of a good compound microscope, demonstrates most conclusively that the rust consists entirely of minute fungi-perfect plants, resembling small mushrooms, or toadstools, and propagating their species by proper seeds. This is beautifully illustrated by the accompanying engravings, where fig. 1 is a section of wheat straw, with dark granulated stripes representing the rust; and on the sides ean be seen the swelling up and bursting of the epidermis, or skin, of the straw. It is shown, by the microscope, that the fungi begin to grow inside of the straw, beneath this epidermis; and immediately on its bursting or splitting, it protrudes outside, and rapidly grows to its full size and perfection. The small figure (3) shows a cluster of these fungi, (magnified,) taken off the straw, and exhibiting their manner of attachment, by their roots, to the crevice or slit in the straw. The central figure (2) is a representation of a very small cluster of the fungi, full grown, and greatly magnified, showing their uniform shape, (though this varies somewhat,) and two of them scattering seed from their tops.

The quantity of seed they contain is very great, the large head or ball being filled with it. It is this that forms the fine red dust which floats in the air like vapor, in badly rusted fields of wheat. It resembles the smoke, or more properly the seed, of that well-known fungus, the puff ball; and may be carried by the winds from one farm to another, over vast districts of country, spreading the contagion to every field that is from any cause rendered in a fit condition for receiving the disease. Abundance of testimony could be adduced to prove the contagious nature of the disease; and also that it does not attack all fields alike, but is greatly influenced by soil and cultivation.

But it will be asked, if the rust or fungi are propagated by seed in this way, how is it that they commence growing inside of the wheat stem, as above stated? The answer is, such are found to be the facts, and it is with these we have mainly to do at present; the how and the why will be an after consideration. Suffice it to say, however, that these seeds are so exceedingly small, that they can, and we suppose do, pass into the plant through the stomata or air vessels of the leaves, and are carried with the descending sap into the stem. But this is only theory, deducible from the facts we have stated; for we have no actual demonstration on this point. Another explanation, (and to our mind a plausible one, though we have never seen it suggested by any other writer,) is, that the seeds of the fungi, on falling to the ground in the fields to which they are transported, are washed into the soil by rain, and taken up by the open mouths of the spongioles, or rootlets, and thus carried into the circulation with the food of the plant. This again suggests the probability that these seeds may remain in the soil, or be applied with straw and manure, so as to in this way infect the succeeding crop, if circumstances should be favorable to the development of the disease.

But it is easy to see that more minute and careful observations are necessary to decide these and many other points connected with this subject. We hope the foregoing will be sufficient to settle the question, What is rust? and serve as a basis for subsequent investigations.

We are aware that these statements will suggest many queries and speculations in the minds of our wheat-growing readers. We desire they should; and when they have had time to ponder over this chapter, we will give them another on the same subject.

E.

SYNOPSIS OF FEES, &c., FOR PATENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The British dominions.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is divided into three countries, for each of which separate patents must be obtained by any inventor who wishes to protect his invention throughout the whole of the British dominions: one for England and Wales, in which may be included the British colonies and possessions, by the petitioner signifying his intention to that effect; one for Scotland; and one for Ireland.

The average ordinary cost, if unopposed, and passed in the usual manner, without extra fees, will be, agent's commission included, as follows:

For England, Wales, and colonies, &c., about

For Scotland

For Ireland

Three specifications

Total

$5.50

3.90

The inventor or applicant for patents is not required to give a detailed description of his invention. He has only to sign a declaration before a master in chancery to the title of his invention, and he receives, after due proceedings are had, a grant of letters patent; after which, he has a certain time to specify-usually 6 months.

Applications for patents are sent from this country to England to an agent, who takes out the patent in his own name, and then sells or transfers the right, as the inventor directs. A patent of this kind is taken out as a communication from a foreigner abroad. Patents are granted for 14 years.

France.

Patents are granted in this country for 5, 10, or 15 years, at the option of the patentee. The application must be accompanied with a perfect description, written in the French language, and two sets of drawings. The term of a patent cannot, after it is granted, be extended. Every invention must be worked within 2 years after the date of the patent; otherwise, it may be cancelled. The cost will generally amount to about £300, and agent's fees. If a patent is taken out in ony other country subsequent to the date of the patent in France, the patent in France is void.

Belgium.

Patents for foreign inventions are not now granted for a longer term hon 10 years, and sometimes they are restricted to 5 years; they may be prolonged, however, a few years, by applying before their expiration. The

invention must be worked in Belgium; and if the patentee imports any similar articles to those he has patented, the grant is liable to be rescinded. The specification must be written in the French language, with two copies of drawings. The invention must be worked within 2 years after the grant, or be liable to forfeiture.

Holland.

The specification written in English, and accompanied with two copies of drawings, may be sent with the application for patent in this country, which is granted for 5, 10, or 15 years, (as the applicant desires,) if it does not extend beyond the term of a foreign patent for the same thing; but a patent may be obtained for 5 years, and afterwards extended, if required, to a longer period.

Austria.

The specification must be made in German, and illustrated with drawings, if necessary. A patent can be obtained for 5 years, and afterwards extended to any time not exceeding 15 years in the whole. The invention must be worked within one year from its date, or be liable to forfeiture.

Prussia.

This Government exercises a discretionary power in granting patents, A complete specification and drawings are required; but no tax is charged, except a trifling sum for advertising, &c. Patents are granted for 5 years, and sometimes longer; and the invention must be put in practice within 6 months.

Russia.

Patents are granted in this country at the discretion of Government, by which their duration is fixed, which is for 3, 5, or 6 years; and, to insure their validity, they must not have been published in any country previous to the application here. The price for a foreign invention is, for 1 year, 60; for 2 years, 120; for 3 years, 180; for 4 years, 240; for 5 years, 300; for 6 years, 360 silver roubles. A silver rouble is about 75 cents.

Spain.

Patents of importation or introduction are granted in this country for 5 years, if no description can be found in the Conservatory of Arts in Madrid; or for any invention, the description of which has been deposited there for more than 3 years, and not publicly worked in Spain.

N..B. In foreign countries, patents are granted to those who introduce them, as well as to inventors; but in the United States, the inventor or assignee can alone take a patent. If the inventor is a foreigner, the fee is for a foreign patent.

H.

Improvement in the magneto-electric machine, and application of this instrument to operate the magnetic telegraph.

The magneto-electric machine was originally contrived by Mr. Saxton, soon after the commencement of the interesting discovery of Faraday, that magnetism was capable of exciting electricity. The conditions necessary for obtaining electricity in this way were, chiefly, the disturbance of magnetic forces in a bar of soft iron surrounded by coils of wire. A number of mechanical contrivances were resorted to, in order to effect this disturbance, by causing the bar of iron, thus surrounded, to approach to and recede from the poles of powerful magnets; but the ingenuity of Mr. Saxton far exceeded them all, by giving to the coils and enclosed bar a rotary movement about the poles of a U-form magnet. This instrument afforded bright sparks and strong shocks; but the currents of electricity thus obtained could not be converted to any useful purpose, as, in each half revolution of the coils, the currents were in opposite directions. In 1838 Professor Page published in Silliman's Journal an account of an improved form of the machine, doing away with many existing objections, and furthermore rendering it at once a useful instrument, by a contrivance for conducting these opposing currents into one channel or direction, which part of the contrivance was called the unitress. The current produced in this way was capable of performing the work, to a certain extent, of the power developed by the galvanic battery; and the machine was found adequate to the furnishing of shocks for medical purposes, for exhibiting the decomposition of water, furnishing the elements oxygen and hydrogen at their respective poles, and producing definite electrochemical results. These two last results could not be obtained without the aid of the unitress. But, with this improvement, the instrument was still wanting in one property of the galvanic battery, viz: that property which chemists call quantity, or that power upon which depends its ability to magnetize, and also to heat platinum wires. This last property has been given to the machine by the recent contrivance of Professor Page. The machine, in its novel construction under his improvement, developed what is called, by way of distinction, the current of intensity, but had a very feeble magnetizing power. By a peculiar contrivance of the coils, (not to be made public until his rights are in some way secured,) the current of quantity is obtained in its maximum, while, at the same time, the intensity is so much diminished that it gives scarcely any shock, and decomposes feebly. It has been successfully tried with the magnetic telegraph of Professor Morse, and operates equally well with the battery. It affords, by simply turning a crank attached to the machine, a constant current of galvanic electricity; and as there is no consumption of material necessary to obtain this power, it will doubtless supersede the use of the galvanic battery, which, in the event of constant employment, would be very expensive, from the waste of zinc, platinum, acids, mercury, other materials used in its construction. It particularly recommends itself for magnetizing purposes, as it requires no knowledge of chemistry to insure the result, being merely mechanical in its action, and is always ready for action without previous preparation; the turning of a crank being the only requisite when the machine is in order. It is not liable to

and