97. Who cannot be used as an adjective. We do not say "who man." But which (being a compound of lic-like) is frequently used as an adjective, as in: Which thing is true in him and in you" (1 John ii. 8). "Which pillage they [the bees] with merry march bring home

To the tent royal of their emperor."

Shakespeare, Henry V, Act i. sc. 2.

98. What (O. E. hwat, Mid. E. what) is etymologically the neuter of who. As a relative it takes no antecedent, and is used only of things, as in "What they took they kept." Sometimes it is an adjective: "Get what help you can.'

"

What is sometimes described as a compound relative," as being that + which, and so containing both antecedent and relative. Objection has been taken to this description, on the ground (Nesfield) that the antecedent is sometimes expressed either (a) in a subsequent clause, or (b) immediately after the relative itself, and the following instances are given :

(a) What I tell you in the darkness, that speak ye in the light.'

(b) Take what (or whatever) help you can get."

But in (a) that is merely an emphatic repetition of the that implied in what (=that which); and in (b) what, as has been said above, is an adjective. But it has not lost its relative force, since it means, The help which you can get, that take." So it appears that the name pound relative" for what is justifiable.

"

com

99. Whoever and whosoever are declined like who (Section 91).

Instances are frequent in Shakespeare of the use of who with the 3rd personal pronoun, where we should say whoever, as in:

". . . O now, who will behold

The royal captain of this ruin'd band,
Let him cry

100. In O.E. de (the) is the regular relative pronoun for all genders. In the thirteenth century we find both the and that, which is the neuter of the old demonstrative adjective se, seo, that. In the fourteenth century, that was the ordinary relative; in the sixteenth, which is often found; in the seventeenth, who, as a relative, is used of persons. the beginning of the eighteenth century that had come into favour once more.

By

It is noteworthy that the genitive, dative, and accusative of who are used as relatives

Although frequently used interchangeably for who, whom, or which, that differs from them in two important ways:

(1) It cannot be used after a preposition. We can say, "He is the friend with whom I stayed," but not, "He is the friend with that I stayed.

That may be used with a preposition, if the preposition follows the verb of the sentence, as in The train that we shall go by is the two-fifty."

(2) Its general use is to define, limit, or distinguish-marking its noun off from other nouns-while who and which introduce a new statement about the antecedent. In "Is this the book that I gave you?" that defines the antecedent book, distinguishing it from others. In "I overtook Jones, who told me the result of the election," the meaning is, "I overtook Jones, and he told me the result," &c., two statements being really made. If the sentence ran (in rather unusual form), "I overtook Jones, that told me the result," &c., the meaning would be "I overtook the same Jones that had previously told me," &c.

Again, we say I have said good-bye to my father, who (i.e. since he) is going to' Spain," but not "I have said good-bye to my father that is going," &c., because in such a sentence that would imply that I have at least two fathers, of whom one is indicated.

In practice the distinction just noted is not strictly observed, unless ambiguity would clearly result from non-observance. We say either the friend that I visited," or " the friend whom I visited." The present tendency, reversing that of Addison's time, seems to be to use who and which rather than that.

That was formerly used for what or that which, as in "Lo! there thou hast that is thine" (Matt. xxv. 25, A.V.).

101. As, properly a conjunctive adverb, possesses a relative force on account of its being a compound of so, and is used as a relative when it is preceded by such, as, the same, so much. Examples:

"To those as have no children."

Holland, Translation of Plutarch. The use of an ordinary relative after such, though now obsolete, was at one time admissible. Examples:

A goodly day not to keep house with such
Whose roof's as low as ours."

Shakespeare, Cymbeline, Act. iii. sc. 3.
"With looks

Downcast and damp, yet such wherein appeared Obscure some glimpse of joy."

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 522.

The second illustration just given reminds us that there are many compounds of where (itself an adverb) which are true relatives, as whereby, wherein, whereof, whereto, &c. The meaning is by which, in which, &c. Tennyson (Ulysses) has : "For all experience is an arch wherethrough

Gleams that untravelled world. . . ." 102. But. This word, as has already been indicated (Section 89), has given rise to differences of opinion. The New English Dictionary says that "with omission of the pronominal subject or object of the dependent sentence... but acts as a negative relative." Meiklejohn says: "But is the proper relative after a negative." Instances of its use are these:

"There is no work whatsoever but he can (ie. which he cannot) criticise" (Goldsmith, Citizen of the World).

Hardly one of the Frenchmen round but looked (ie. who did not look) on Hereward as a barbarian Englishman (C. Kingsley, Hereward).

Clearly, in these and kindred instances, but has the force of who+not or which+not. But while admitting this, other authorities deny that it should be called a relative. Nesfield says: "It is not a pronoun, but a conjunction with some demonstrative pronoun after it. This pronoun is sometimes expressed, as in the common saying 'It never rains but it pours." Here the meaning is, "when it does not pour "—i.e. without pouring. West, who gives as one of his illustrations, There is nobody but thinks you mad❞—i.e. “who does not think," &c.— says: "We are not, however, to call but a relative pronoun here, though it serves

as the substitute for one: it is a conjunction, and there is an ellipsis of a pronoun which should follow it: There is nobody but he thinks you mad.'" The difficulty of this explanation is that the sentence just given is ambiguous, and as it stands appears to mean "He is the only person who thinks you mad," which is certainly very far from what is meant. On the whole it is best to accept but as a relative in the connections indicated.

Interrogative Pronouns

103. These are used in asking questions. An interrogative is "a pronoun in search of an antecedent."

Interrogatives are sometimes classed with relatives, which they resemble in form. They have also the same etymological origin. They are who (with the possessive whose and the objective whom), which, what whether, and the compounds who-ever, whichever, what-ever.

SO

Who is used with reference to persons, and always substantively: Who rides late?" Which and what are used both substantively and adjectivally, and both of persons and things. (We can say which man" or "what man," but not "who man.")

Who and what ask questions in general terms; which implies that there is a class or group from which selection is made.

"Whom did you see?" What will you take? "Which stick did you bring with you?

104. Whose as an interrogative is in practice confined to persons, though whose, the relative, is also used of animals and things (Section 94). We say, The bicycle whose wheels spin round so fast"; but if we ask, "Whose wheels spin round so fast?" we do not expect such an answer as "The bicycle's," but a reference to the owner, Tom's" or "Harry's."

105. Whether (O. E. hwa-ther, Mid. E. whether, wher) means which of the two? It is also a conjunction. As an interrogative it may, like who, which, and what, be used either directly or indirectly:

66

Whether of the twain did the will of his father?" (Matt. xxi. 31, R. V.) (direct).

Indefinite Pronouns

107. These do not specify any particular object. Grammarians differ very greatly in their enumeration of them. Morris says: "The indefinites are (in addition to the indefinite relatives [such, i.e., as who-so, whosoever]) who, what, some, none, no, aught, naught, enough, any, every, either, neither,other, else, sundry, certain." Later on he adds one, many, several, different, and divers, and the compounds of some. Hall's list is one, none, aught, naught, anything, nothing, each, either, neither, other, another, such. Adams, not attempting apparently to give a full list, says: "The following are indefinite pronouns who, any, what, aught, naught, other, one, some." Meiklejohn names five "chief

ones:

one, none; any, other; and some. West discusses four-viz. one, any, aught, and naught and mentions no others. Nesfield names three only-viz. they, one, and it-and these he includes among demonstratives. It is not possible to discuss all these, but a few notes are given.

"

Who, as indefinite, is some one or any one, as in the phrase as who should say." What is indefinite in "I tell you what."

Some (O. E. sum, Mid. E. som) is used in a variety of connections, as in "to tell or to hear some new thing" (Acts xvii. 21) "He who rules must still displeasure some (Sir H. Taylor, Philip van Artevelde, ii. 3); Some certain of the noblest-minded Romans (Julius Cæsar, Act i. sc. 3); “A child of some five summers.'

It may be questioned whether, in the first instance just given, some would not be better classed as an adjective, and in the second as a noun, where it is a number. In the last example it may be argued that it is an adverb, being about. The compounds of some in common use are somebody, someone, something, somewhat. Somewhat is now used also as an adverb.

VERBS Function

108. Various definitions are given. Adams says: "Verb is the grammatical term for an action-i.e. doing something.' This does not seem wide enough. Morris says: "A verb is a word that states or asserts what a thing does or is done to, or in what state it exists." This again is not wide enough, and the phrase "is done to is awkward and ambiguous. A steak or chop is sometimes said to be I done to a turn," but turn is here not a verb but a noun. West follows Meiklejohn (who remarks that a verb is "the keystone of the arch of speech ") in

his definition: "A verb is a word with which we can make an assertion." This, too, is not sufficiently inclusive. It is better to say that a verb is a word with which we make an assertion, ask a question, or express a wish or command. (See Section 3.)

Classification

109. Verbs are commonly divided into Transitive and Intransitive (Latin transire, to pass or cross over), but this division is not exhaustive. A transitive verb denotes an action or feeling which passes over from the doer of the action to the object of it: "The boy threw the ball," He loves cricket." An intransitive verb denotes a state, feeling, or action which does not go beyond the doer or agent: "He sleeps,' "She walks,” "The grass grows." More simply, a transitive verb requires an object; an intransitive verb does not.

A fuller classification is given by Nesfield, thus:

Verbs are subdivided into three main classes

Notional or Transitive

Principal

Intransitive

Auxiliary

Class I.

Class II.

Class III.

I

field, denoting a thing, and the other a person." But both objects may be things, or both persons, as in the sentences, gave the table a good polish," "The King he had a daughter fair, and he gave the Prince of Orange her." Note that the indirect object always stands first, unless it is preceded by to, as in "He taught Euclid (direct) to his sons (indirect)."

112. Transitive verbs can be used intransitively in two ways:

(1) When the verb is used in a general sense, without specified object. Transitive: "He hath eaten me out of house and home" (King Henry IV, Part II, Act ii. sc. 1). Intransitive: "Men eat to live." [The first of the above sentences is an interesting illustration of what we occasionally findviz. that the material object of the action and the grammatical object of the verb may be different. Falstaff had not actually consumed Mistress Quickly.]

(2) When the reflexive pronoun is omitted: 'Draw (yourselves) near to battle."

113. Some intransitive verbs can be used as transitives: "The horses trotted." They trotted the horses." The river ran swiftly.' "He ran the boat upon the rocks." The number of verbs which can be used both transitively and intransitively is considerable.

Other points with regard to transitives and intransitives should be noted:

Intransitive verbs followed by prepositions may be regarded as forming with them compound verbs which are transitive. "I laughed at him" (where him is governed by at) may be understood as I laughed-at (transitive) him"; and so we get the passive construction, " He was laughed at." Some intransitive verbs become transitive by having prepositions prefixed to them, as: stand, understand; run, outrun ; bemoan.

moan,

A few intransitive verbs give rise, by change of vowel, to transitive forms called Causative, because they indicate that the action or condition spoken of by the original word is brought about. Thus to set" is to make to sit," to lay " is to make to lie," "to fell" is to make to fall." 114. The Cognate (or Kindred) Object.— Though an intransitive verb is never followed by a noun denoting something different from itself, it may be followed by a noun already implied in the verb. We may reckon five forms of cognate object, and one illustration of each form is here appended:

He laughed a hearty laugh.
He struck a deadly blow.
He ran a great risk.
He shouted his loudest.
Lord Angelo dukes it well.

115. Complete and Incomplete Predication Intransitive verbs are said to be of complete predication when the verb makes sense by itself, as "the wind blows," "birds fly."

Intransitive verbs are said to be of incomplete predication when they require something to be added (called a Complement) to complete the meaning. Sometimes the predicate is visibly incomplete, as when we say, "His anticipations are," and must add some word-e.g. groundless-to make sense. Sometimes there is sense without the complement, but its addition makes the meaning different. My visitor turned out means that he left the house; but My visitor turned out a bore means that I grew weary of his company.

Impersonal Verbs

"

116. An Impersonal Verb is one in which the source of the action is not known (Adams) or not expressed (West). There are," says Adams, no such verbs in English, since in me-seems and me-thinks-i.e. it appears to me-the subject is expressed in the words that precede or follow the verb." The lady doth protest too much, methinks (Hamlet, Act iii. sc. 2). West, on the other hand, says: "Only two examples of true impersonals occur in Modern English, methinks and meseems." The student must take his choice between the two statements.

Voice

118. Voice is that form of a verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer or the object of the action expressed by the verb. There are two Voices, Active and Passive.

In the Active Voice the subject of the sentence stands for the doer of the action : "He kindled a fire."

In the Passive Voice the subject of the sentence stands for the object of the action : "A fire was kindled."

There is in English a kind of Middle voice. Thus we can say: "He opened the door (active), "The door was opened" (passive), The door opened" (middle).

With the exception of intransitive verbs which take a cognate object, as in the example which follows, only transitive verbs admit of a passive use.

The Athenians fought a hard battle at Marathon. (Active.)

A hard battle was fought by the Athenians at Marathon. (Passive.)

119. The parts of the auxiliary verb to be are used with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to form the passive voice: "I am astonished," " He is wounded," "We have been entertained," "They will be examined." Some intransitive verbs are also conjugated with the verb to be, but though passive in appearance they are not so in reality: "I am come," "he is gone," "They are fallen." There is a slight difference of meaning between " He is gone and "He has gone.' The latter emphasizes the act of departure, while "He is gone lays stress on his continued absence. So we can say, "He has come and gone," but not "He is come and gone."

120. Verbs which take a double object admit of two forms in the passive, according as one object or the other is made the subject of the verb.

Active: They offered her a chair. Passive: (i) A chair was offered her. (ii) She was offered a chair.

The second form, in which the indirect object, originally in the dative case, becomes the subject, cannot really be defended, but such sentences are used by good writers. The word chair in the example is not, of course, the object of was offered, because a passive verb cannot take an object. It is, so to say, left over from the active form, and is called the Retained or Residuary object.

121. Some verbs active in form can be used with a middle sense. Thus: "Honey tastes sweet" (i.e. is sweet when tasted), "Your essay reads well" (i.e. sounds well

Strong and Weak Verbs

122. Verbs are classified as Strong or Weak, according to the way in which they make their past tense (indicative active).

(1) Those that make the past tense by changing the vowel of the present are Strong:

Present: I write, I fall.
Past: I wrote, I fell.

(2) Those that make the past tense by adding -d or -t to the present are Weak: Present: I love, I sleep. Past: I loved, I slept.

The following points should be noted with regard to strong verbs:

(a) The modification of the root vowel is probably due to a reduplication which is now lost. An almost solitary example of this process exists in Modern English in do, di-d.

(b) All verbs which form the past tense by changing (not merely by shortening) the inside vowel, and do not add a final -d or -t, are strong, as fight, fought (but buy, bough-t, is weak, because after changing the inside vowel it adds a final -t); hold, held; stand, stood. The change of vowel in the past tense of strong verbs like fall, fight, hold, stand must not be confounded with the

shortening of the vowel, as in feed, fed (once fed-de).

(c) All verbs which form the past participle in -en or -n are either wholly or partly strong:

(d) The past participle of a strong verb (1) sometimes ends in -en, (2) sometimes has a different modification of the vowel from that of the past tense, and (3) sometimes is of the same form as the past tense: I strove, (I have) striven; I sprang, (I have) sprung; I found, (I have) found.

(e). All strong verbs are old and of English origin. There are rather more than a hundred of them, and with the exception of a few to which a prefix has been attached, they are all words of one syllable.

The Classification of Strong Verbs

123. Strong verbs are divided by grammarians into seven groups or conjugations.