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clauses, especially after demonstratives and distributives; as, Earthly pleasures, which are short and uncertain, cannot be the highest for man; ""These pleasures that are from earth," etc.; "It is of all the troubles that have been reportel, the most embarrassing."

2. When the antecedent embraces both persons and things, or is of doubtful application; as, "The cities and their inhabitants that escaped from this desolation,” etc.

99

3. In elliptical expressions, and especially when the preposition is omitted; as, 66 The last time that I saw him;' "He was the last that came;" equivalent to "He was the last of those that came."

4. When who or which has been already used in the same sentence, in order to prevent ambiguity; as, "In the city which had gates that had been celebrated for their number, size, and costliness."

5. After same.

§ 131. When the object is not known, but sought after, it is presented in interrogative sentences by a class of words called Interrogative Pronouns.

An INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN is a word used to denote an unknown object in an interrogative sentence; as, "Who will go for us ?" "Whose book has he brought?" "Whom will he take with him?" "What will he do?" "Which is Jupiter?"

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, what. They are distinguished from the relative pronouns only by their use in asking a question.

What and which are used as adjective interrogatives; as, "What book and which pen will he take?"

§ 132. ORAL EXERCISES. Point out the Relative Pronouns and their antecedents, and also the Interroga tive Pronouns in the following sentences: —

If you have a friend that will reprove your faults and foibles, consider that you enjoy a blessing which the king upon the throne cannot have.

To labor and be content with what a man hath, is a sweet life.

He who begins soon to be good will be likely to be very good at last.

He whose ruling passion is love of praise, is a slave to every one who has a tongue for detraction.

No man hath a thorough taste of prosperity to whom adversity never happened.

He that forecasts what may happen shall never be surprised.

What good morals are to society in general, good manners are to particular ones.

You have obliged a person; very well, what would you have more?

Whatever can please, whatever can charm, solicits his attention.

Who will say there are no pleasures in knowledge?

And, after all, what is there in life that may be justly reckoned of sufficient importance to move a person to a violent passion?

And which is the nobler benefactor, patriot, and philanthropist ?

Whose work is this?

Whoso mocketh the poor reproacheth his Maker.

This undertaking, so noble in its beginning, so illustrious in its progress, so promising in its future results, must be sustained, whosoever or whatsoever may stand in the way of it.

What man has done, man can do.

Such of the combs as were entire were placed in campkettles to be conveyed to the encampment.

As many as were of that persuasion united in resisting the government.

Correct the faults in the following sentences:

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. This is the country whose boundaries you were to trace out. Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors which Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He is like a beast of prey who destroys without pity. Flattery, whose nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder. He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. The child, whom we visited, has recovered. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. They are the same persons who went out in the ship. The people and the cattle which were on board were saved. Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. Of all what he said he could not prove a particle. This is one of the duties which require circumspection. His speech contains one of the grossest calumnies which was ever uttered. How happy are the virtuous, that can rest on the protection of the powerful arm, who made the earth and the heavens? The man is prudent which speaks little. Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable that grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnishes evidence. This is the same article which I saw yesterday.

§ 133. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Construct five sentences containing Relative Pronouns relating to persons; five relating to things; five containing Interrogative Pronouns.

PART II. PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF

THE SENTENCE.

CHAPTER I.

ELEMENTS AND DIVISIONS.

§ 134. WHEN we assert any thing of an object of thought, we are said to judge,—to form a judgment of it. Such a judgment expressed in words is termed a Sentence, and also a Proposition; as, The grass is green; The sun shines.

§ 135. In every judgment, and consequently in every sentence or proposition, there are necessarily three elements, namely:

1. An object concerning which we make the assertion, called the Subject;

2. That which is asserted of the object, called the Predicate;

3. The assertion itself, called the Copula.

The Subject and the Predicate are called the Terms of the Judgment. Thus, in the sentence, "Man is mortal," man and mortal are the Terms; and in the sentence, "The grass is green in the valleys," the grass and green in the valleys are the Terms.

OBSERVATION 1. The necessity of the concurrence of these three elements in every judgment is self-evident. The form, however, in which the judgment is expressed, may

sometimes seem to indicate the absence of one or more of them. All must nevertheless be implied when not fully ex, pressed. The proposition "It rains," Latin "pluit," contains in disguise all of the three elements, and is imperfect only in form. They are all contained in the one word pluit or rains; for the word it means nothing and is a mere expletive (§ 339). There is contained an object of which something is asserted, rain; also, something asserted of it, reality or existence; and, moreover, the assertion itself. Pluit, rains, means something more than rain, more than raining. It is an asserting word, while also it contains the object of which something is asserted, and that which is asserted of it. The copula or asserting element is the life of the judgment, and consequently of the proposition or sentence. not expressed, it is necessarily implied in every proposition. Only as there is a copula, that is, only as there is an assertion, can an object of thought become subject or predicate. See Appendix No. IV.

If

OBSERVATION 2. When it is said that every sentence must contain an assertion, the word must be understood to be used in a wide signification, to include negation, interrogation, command, and the like. So when it is said that the copula expresses identity, it must be understood as applying not only to the positive form of the sentence, but also to the negative, and thus including non-identity or difference. To avoid cumbrous expressions we may sometimes use language in our exposition of the sentence, which might, if construed strictly, imply that there are no sentences but those which positively assert sameness or identity. In such cases, the expressions must be taken in a wider sense, as inclusive of all sentences, negative and interrogative as well as positive.

OBSERVATION 3. Essentially, the copula is merely the expression of the identity or non-identity of the subject and the predicate. See Appendix No. IV. As this identity may be either total or partial, we have two classes of propositions.