3. There stood an unsold captive in the mart,

A gray-haired and majestical old man. 4. The mistress of the mansion came,

Mature of age, a graceful dame.

5. Peter the Hermit started the First Crusade.

By a careful study of these sentences we see how appositives are punctuated.

4. An appositive accompanied by modifying words is preceded and followed by a comma. If the appositive is unmodified, and closely connected with what precedes, no comma is required.

1. By holding the reins steadily, and by speaking gently, he soon quieted the horse.

2. In brief, he decided in the negative.

3. To tell the truth, I could not come.

4. The old-fashioned dress of Aunt Nancy, sorrowful to relate, shocked her city niece.

Study the sentences above for the punctuation of adverbial phrases.

5. Adverbial phrases, if placed at the beginning of a sentence or between the simple subject and the predicate verb, are separated from the rest of the sentence by

The rules for the punctuation of simple sentences apply equally to complex sentences.

1. The men who refuse to work should not be fed by charity. 2. Those who labor will win.

3. Only those who have excelled shall enter the lists.

4. I gave the basket to the boy, who stood waiting for it at the door.

5. Miss Carmen, who is my friend since our schooldays, is to sing this evening.

6. The stream, which was greatly swollen by recent rain, had overflowed its banks.

Try to see the difference between the clauses in the first three sentences and those in the last three. It is clear that the meaning will be obscure if we omit the clauses in the first three sentences. In the first sentence, who refuse to work restricts the number of men who should not be fed by charity. In the second sentence, who labor restricts the number of those who will win. In the third sentence, who have excelled restricts the number of those who shall enter the lists. All the clauses in these sentences are therefore restrictive.

Restrictive clauses, unless long and involved, are not separated from the words they modify by commas.

In the fourth, fifth, and sixth sentences the clauses are not restrictive, but each adds a coördinate thought.

Each could be made a coördinate statement as follows: 1. I gave the basket to the boy; he was waiting for it at the door. 2. Miss Carmen is to sing this evening; she has been my friend since our schooldays. 3. The river has overflowed its banks; it was swollen by recent rains.

Coördinate statements and non-restrictive clauses are separated or marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Write five sentences using restrictive clauses; five using coördinate statements; five using non-restrictive clauses.

1. Shall we, if we are not members, be admitted?

2. Along with much error this statement, as I think, contains some truth.

3. As I have already suggested, political systems are as good as the state of society admits.

The above sentences show that adverbial clauses preceding or placed within principal statements are set off by commas. If the adverbial clause follows the principal statement and both are short, no comma is required.

4. While the acquisition of knowledge is made repugnant; while the pupil is never allowed the free exercise of his own will; while the teacher is the autocrat of the school, holding the pupil under severe discipline; there will be a tendency to discontinue study when free from the coercion of parents and teachers.

This sentence shows that coördinate clauses in a series are separated from one another and from principal statements by semicolons.

CXII. PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPOUND

SENTENCE.

The principles of punctuation of simple and complex sentences apply also to compound sentences.

1. The rain descended, the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon that house; and it fell not; for it was founded upon a rock.

2. As the region now stands higher than before, the rivers tend to wear down their valleys to the new level of the sea at their mouths; the valley sides waste away; and thus the valleys slowly become wider; but the streams cannot wear the valleys deeper than the sea at their mouths.

The sentences above show all the punctuation that is peculiar to compound sentences.

Observe in the first sentence that the first three members being short and closely connected are separated by commas. The remaining members are separated by the semicolon, because they are less closely connected.

In the second sentence as the comma is used to separate the clause from the first statement the semicolon is used to show the distinction between the principal

statements.

CXIII. DERIVATION OF MODERN ENGLISH.

Think of the meaning of the words arranged below in pairs.

give, present;
climb, ascend;

go down, descend;
mislead, deceive;
stick, adhere.;

come back, return;

sweat, perspire;
free, deliver;

might, power;
gown, dress;

sin, trespass;

happiness, felicity;
forefather, progenitor;
bloom, flower;

forerunner, precursor;
drawback, obstacle;
fellow-feeling, sympathy;
heavenly, celestial;
earthly, terrestrial;
motherly, maternal;
fatherly, paternal;
brotherly, fraternal.

These words show that the English language has more than one word to express nearly or quite the same idea. This is true because of the history of England and of the English people.

Before England was conquered by William the Norman, in the eleventh century, the language of England was Anglo-Saxon. The Normans brought in their French, a language derived from the Latin. The two chief elements of the language after the coming of the Normans were therefore Anglo-Saxon and Latin.

These two languages were used side by side for a time; but each had its effect upon the other until early in the fifteenth century, when the two languages had become practically one. This language was, however, quite different from either of its original elements.

Languages change with use; new elements are introduced from time to time; and words formerly used disappear or change their meaning. This is especially true of the English language.

Such pairs of words as ox, beef; calf, veal; sheep, mutton; sweat, perspire, -show a slight difference of meaning of the words in the same pair. Some of these differences have come from the differences in occupation of the two peoples, the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans.

In the pairs of words used above the Anglo-Saxon words are italicized; the French are in Roman type. The Normans were the rich, the powerful, the titled; the Saxons tended the cattle, were the herdsmen, the farmers, the laborers; so we find Saxon words used for the cattle