Bakewell & Page are also stated to have imported competent workmen from Europe and to have been successful in the manufacture of flint glass. They turned out some cut ware that compared favorably in every way with European cut glass. Some years afterward, the cut-glass industry passed entirely out of the hands of Pittsburgh flint-glass firms and but little of this work which requires the most highly skilled labor, was made in this country. It was not until about 1860, that a number of eastern firms began to reintroduce the art, and to-day it again maintains its early ascendency.

In 1836 we find the first sign of the "iron-clad " as similar documents are called in modern times. The existance of such a document proves, that the employer supposed it was necessary to suppress any combination among the workmen, for it expressly stipulates that "each one for himself, and not for the other, agrees to blow glassware for Christian Ihmsen." The latter, at that time, must also have been engaged in the flint and green glass business, for the same contract or iron-clad, after speaking of the window-workers, adds: "any of the undersigned who shall work at any time in flint glass, shall be allowed for every day that he is thus employed, to the amount of what he can earn upon an average while working in green glass."

This would seem to show that even as late as 1836, there were men employed in the glass business who could not only blow window glass, but worked in flint and green glass as well.

Sixty years ago there were but few factories that seem to have made a specialty of flint ware. Among these may be mentioned Bakewell & Page, organized in 1807, Union Flint Glass Works, in 1829, and the Fort Pitt, in 1831. In the eastern States, there were two flint houses, the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, organized in 1824, and the New England Company, at East East Cambridge, Mass., established some years prior to that date.

The division into different branches does not seem to have been so marked in the beginning of the century. In a letter written by Major Craig to Samuel Hodgson, of Philadelphia, in 1803, we find the following interesting passage: "With respect to our glass manufacturing, the establishment has been attended with greater expense than we had estimated. We have, however, by perseverance and attention, brought the manufacture to comparative perfection. During the last blast, which commenced at the beginning of January and lasted six months, we made, on an average, thirty boxes a week of excellent window glass, besides bottles and other hollow-ware to the amount of one-third of the value of window glass."

From this letter it can be seen that the workmen were required to have a more general skill and to be able to work at all the branches. We find allusion even made to the fact that the workmen had to make the pots, the materials for which had to be brought over the

The comparatively undeveloped condition of the flint glass trade at this time, and for many years to come, the great skill required of the few men engaged in it, may explain why a labor union, such as exists to-day, was unknown, and perhaps unnecessary. The men, no doubt, had some crude form of organization, partly social, partly beneficial, but not until 1858 do we obtain any authentic account of the formation of a labor union among the flint-glass workers.

From 1850 to 1860 flint-glass plants, operating more exclusively upon special lines of ware, rapidly multiplied. This increased the number of workers and sharpened competition. The rapid growth of the glass trade was largely owing to a discovery by which the cost of glassmaking was considerably lessened. The art of making cheap lime glass instead of lead glass, which is more expensive, opened up a vast field for the consumption of this most useful product.

This prosperity, however, received a check through the disastrous panic of 1857, and the stagnation in business, together with the stress of increased competition for the dull market, impelled many employers to seek supposed safety by trenching upon what the workmen deemed their rights.

It is natural for men after performing their day's or week's work, to gather where a social glass of beer or ale enables them to enjoy a little relaxation. It is no less natural for the conversation to turu upon matters connected with their trade. Any grievance which one man might wish to discuss with another would naturally suggest itself, and it was out of such a gathering that the first important organization of flint-glass workers had its inception.

An old retired glass worker, named Michael Keenan, kept a tavern on Smithfield street which was patronized by members of that trade, and it was here that three men, named Daniel McAfee, Joseph Roseman and John Steen, conceived the idea of forming a glass workers' union. This took place about the beginning of November, 1858. These three men drew up a preliminary constitution and obligation, and called their proposed organization "The Glass Blowers' Benevolent Society." The utmost secrecy was observed, for if employers at that time would have had an intimation that any of their employés contemplated an organization to better control the price of their own labor, a prompt discharge would have followed. This would have been equivalent to an exile from the glass trade, so heinous was the offerce of daring to form an organization.

It was not until the 18th of December, 1858, however, that the organization really began to exist, for on that evening a large number of men supposed to be worthy of the confidence reposed in them were initiated into the union by the founders. A permanent organization was formed by electing Joseph Roseman president, Jacob Strickel, secretary, and John Wheeler, treasurer. The first named is still alive

at the present day and has lived to see the present powerful organization of American flint-glass workers.

The Glass Blowers' Benevolent Union flourished and prospered up to the breaking out of the war. During the early period of the war a strike occurred at the Fort Pitt Glass Works against a reduction, and was lost. A second strike followed at the Independent Glass Works, and when this, too, was lost, the Glass Workers' Union virtually disbanded.

In the meantime local organizations had been established in eastern cities but no mutual tie seems to have bound them together. Like the earlier organization in Pittsburgh the first test showed their weakness.

Another reason operated to place the necessity for a labor organization in the background until 1866. The war created a great demand for skilled workmen, partly to supply the places of those who had enlisted and partly to supply the great demand for glass goods during that period. The number of glass workers rapidly multiplied, boys and apprentices were quickly advanced, and when the soldiers returned to the workshops they found a new labor element had been introduced into the trade.

The lack of organization sharpened competition among the men for employment and it was soon seen that an organized effort must be made to secure a more uniform system of wages and methods.

A call for the first national convention of flint-glass workers ever held was issued by the glass workers of Brooklyn, New York. A strong local organization existed in that city, and it took the first steps. necessary to bring about a more general organization than had hitherto existed. The first national convention was held in Philadelphia in June, 1866, and was attended by delegates from all large glass centers. They elected James Smith, of Brooklyn, national president, and at the second national convention in 1867 he was again reëlected. After this the national union seems to have failed for want of sufficient interest in its affairs by the members. Local unions, however, were maintained with better success, but they exercised but little control on the question of wages and work. From the dissolution of this first general union in 1868, up to 1876, no effort seems to have been made to revive it or to establish any national union that would cover all flint-glass workers. Local organizations were numerous, but they rarely embraced more than a few factories within their fold. There was no sympathy, apparently, between them nor affiliation among their members. Each preserved its own autonomy and each was guided by its own councils. This want of sympathy, which was often openly expressed, was taken advantage of by the manufacturer to discipline the workmen and to reduce the cost of labor.

It will scarcely seem possible to the members of the present day

1867 to 1868, employers found no difficulty in inducing the men of one locality to accept the places of men in another district. A notable instance of this want of harmony was given during the strike of the chimney workers in Steubenville, Ohio (to which we will allude again subsequently), in 1876, whose places were filled by men from the east. The latter were, at this very time, members of the Knights of Labor. Similar instances occurred at Bellaire, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois.

In June, 1876, a strike occurred in the chimney trade against a reduction of ten per cent. in wages. The men at this time were unorganized, but this reduction of the manufacturers of their wages, thrust upon them the necessity of some organized opposition. The table ware glass workers had secretly organized under the Knights of Labor, and were known as L. A. 281. When this reduction was offered to the chimney blowers, they too naturally sought protection in the same fold, and in a short time a local assembly of chimney workers was organized, known as L. A. 319. This organized opposition proved so successful that by the first of September, the demand for a reduction in wages was withdrawn and the men resumed work. The prestige of this victory helped to increase the membership rapidly and it was not long before all the departments of the flint glass trade, except the gatherers of the chimney houses, were organized. The activity was not confined to Pittsburgh. The Pittsburgh assemblies sent out organizers to Wheeling, Bellaire and Steubenville and founded flourishing Knights of Labor assemblies composed of glass workers, in those ci ies.

A national organization might soon have sprung up composed of these different locals, but for a struggle which put the Pittsburgh and Steubenville assemblies to the severest test. This was the great strike of the chimney blowers against the patent crimping machine.

As this great strike of the chimney workers, lasted from May, 1877 until September, 1879, a period of over twenty-seven months, a more detailed account of it is necessary. In a measure it was subsequently one of the means of bringing all the different branches of the flintglass trade together into the organization existing to-day.

In the spring of 1876 a patent crimper was introduced into the Fort Pitt glass works. Heretofore the crimping of chimney tops had been done by hand and two hundred and fifty chimneys constitued a "turn." There being two turns in a day for each shift of men, five hundred hand-crimped chimneys were regarded as a day's work. At the Fort Pitt, however, where this patent crimper was in use and where the work of crimping was done by a "crimping boy," operating this machine, the men were required to make fifty more chimneys for each turn, or one hundred more a day. This was equal to an increase of twenty per cent. in product, without any corresponding increase in wages. The managers of the Fort Pitt contended for their side, that the chimney blower was relieved of the work required by the hand

crimping process. While it had been customary to make only two hundred and fifty hand-crimped chimneys under the old style, yet when the worker made plain top, uncrimped chimneys, three hundred were regarded as a turn's work, or six hundred for a day.

It was reasoned on the manufacturer's side that no more work was required of the blower in making chimneys with the patent crimper (the boy doing the crimping) than if he made plain chimneys, with the boy polishing the top. Hence the Fort Pitt glass works demanded the same number of chimneys for a turn, irrespective of whether the top was to remain plain or crimped.

The men at the Fort Pitt yielded to the demand and the consequence was that this factory obtained a decided advantage in the market over its competitors.

To obviate this, Gill Bros., of Steubenville, O., demanded of their employés the same number of crimp-top chimneys made by hand as were made at the Fort Pitt with this patent crimper, which up to this time remained the exclusive property of that firm. The men refused to grant this and a strike occurred. A few remained at work, and to fill the places of the others, chimney blowers were brought from the east. To show the peculiar condition which the flint workers occupied only ten years ago, it is only necessary to state, that most of these eastern chimney blowers who accepted the places of western men, were members of the Knights of Labor. Many of the western men were also members of the same organization. To the trade-unionists of the present day, this lack of harmony and mutual coöperation of members of the same organization, will hardly seem possible, yet it shows a phase in the gradual growth of the flint glass workers' organization.

Through this mistaken policy on the part of the eastern men, the Steubenville firm was partially successful and could place its product upon the market at prices that were ruinously low. The rest of the firms, particularly in Pittsburg, then made the same demand upon their employés, and it was strenuously refused. The manufacturers then purchased the privilege of using the patent crimper, from the Fort Pitt Glass Company. The result was a strike at the Excelsior Glass Works against the use of the patent crimper. The strike extended and soon became general, embracing even the employés of the Fort Pitt glass house, who up to that period had continued to work the machine. The firm of McBeth & Co., agreed to continue working on the old plan and thus no trouble occurred in that factory.

The contest was long and bitter. For one whole year the men held together without the loss of a single man. It was not until the employers introduced labor from other localities that any inroad was made upon the ranks of the strikers. One by one they went back to work. The workers eventually seemed completely demoralized.