seen Lake Michigan. For such a class the establishment of small parks with swimming-pools as near as possible to their district, and the municipal ownership of surface lines with reduced fares, would be a certain help. The latter would enable a considerable percentage of those not wholly submerged to live farther away from congested centers, while those who were still obliged to live in crowded portions of the city might at least occasionally have the benefit of a trip to the suburbs or country.

"The poor, however, are not the only ones that suffer from the indoor life. In these days the ability to succeed in business depends in many cases on the ability to stand protracted nervous strain quite as much as it does upon the possession of brains. Hence we find men in prominent positions who are obliged to make every minute count; who allow just so many hours for sleep, so many minutes for eating, and who practically work all the time. It is among such a class that we are likely to find neurasthenia, heart disease, diabetes mellitus, and chronic Bright's disease. To such men we advise the following: Suburban residence and the habit of taking two vacations a year, one in the winter as well as one in the summer. But during the working season more sleep, less rich food, less alcohol, less sweets, a walk after dinner in the evening, and observance of Sunday as a day of rest for the mind, and suitable exercise for the body are desirable.

A

THE DISCOVERY OF VARIABLE STARS.

CAREFUL search of the nebulous regions of the sky for variable stars, made at Harvard Observatory during the past year, has resulted in some unusual discoveries, which are de scribed by Grace Agnes Thompson in Popular Astronomy (October). This is the first special detailed study of such regions, altho a great amount of work along this line had already been done at the same observatory, nearly two-thirds of the fifteen hundred variables known to astronomers at the beginning of the year having been found there since 1890. Of the types of variable stars and the causes of their variability Miss Thompson writes as follows:

Hundreds of years ago it was known that a few stars were subject to changes in brightness, the length and regularity of these fluctuations being determined by no fixed law. It may, in fact, be regarded as probable that all the stars are so changing, either growing brighter and hotter or fainter and cooler; but in the case of most of them the change is so slow or so slight that the oldest records and charts are not old enough to prove it. Technically speaking variable stars are divided into five classes, according to the length and type of their variations. They include: Novæ, or stars which blaze up suddenly where no star has before appeared, have a peculiar spectrum, and gradually fade away and are lost; stars which vary in a long period of from six months to two years or more, rising continuously from very faint to a brightness several magnitudes above this, and then regularly fading out again, called long-period variables; those which vary in short periods of a few days and are constantly fluctuating in light; those which vary in short periods, but with great regularity, so that their maxima and minima may be predicted with an exactness that counts tenths of a second; those which remain at their maxima during the greater part of the time, but at certain intervals diminish rapidly, remain faint for a brief time, and then increase as rapidly, often changing one or two magnitudes in a few hours. The last are known as Algol variables.

"The actual causes of variation in these stars is not known. Various and numerous theories have been offered. But only one fact has been established: that the origin of fluctuation in the long-period variable is due to changes in the physical condition of the star. The variation of most short-period variables is due to causes that have not yet been determined, tho it is probably the result of some peculiarity in their formation, made apparent by their rotation. Such stars have, no doubt, one side dark and the other bright. Stars of the Algol type are made to vary in light by purely mechanical action, probably from the revolution of dark

bodies around them. This probability, which is now almost established as a fact, suggests a means of gaining some very interesting information, since it is thus possible to estimate accurately the times of revolution of such bodies, even tho they are entirely invisible."

The most remarkable fact brought out by the recent search appears to be that, while in some regions of the heavens variables are very numerous, constituting an appreciable percentage of all stars visible through the telescope, elsewhere they are often almost entirely absent. In the nebulous region known as the Small Magellanic Cloud more than four hundred were found on a single photographic plate, covering an area of six by seven degrees. Says Miss Thompson:

"The results of this great scientific undertaking at Harvard have been thus far very gratifying to Professor Pickering. In a little more than one year the number of known variables has been almost doubled, and a great deal of interesting and important information secured. One of the most interesting facts established is the great and often surprising dissimilarity of different nebulæ. In the beautiful cluster of the Pleiades, for instance, which is nebulous, and where one might expect to find an especially large number of such stars, no cases of variation whatever have yet been found. In the nebula surrounding Eta Carinæ, considered by many the finest nebula in the sky after Orion, very few variable stars have been found. The facts as they exist at present render such regions doubly interesting, since they illustrate how impossible it is to deduce any rule that will govern all nebulous regions alike. Even with regard to the type of variation found in the various nebulæ there is little similarity. Each nebula is a law unto itself.

VARIABLE STARS IN MAGELLANIC CLOUD,
SEPTEMBER 30, 1904.

The variables are marked with horizontal lines.

"The total number of variable stars that have been discovered by Miss Leavitt since she began her investigations in February, 1904, to the date of writing this paper is approximately 1,300. Yet the work is hardly more than well begun, for the collection of photographs at Harvard includes nearly 200,000 glass plates, giving an exhaustive history of the sky during the past sixteen years, and of the more interesting regions since 1883. Not only, then, must the majority of these photographs be carefully examined, but, as new plates are constantly being taken at both the Harvard stations at Cambridge and Arequipa, fresh work is constantly being added. Moreover, besides additional plates of nebulæ already known, new nebulæ, too faint to be detected on photographs taken with the smaller instruments, will doubtless be made apparent by means of the large reflectors now being mounted at Harvard and elsewhere, and it is probable that these future plates will show large numbers of stars of the very faint magnitudes, and that among them will be found many cases of variation."

Telegraphing to Timbuctoo.-A telegraph line from the Mediterranean to Timbuctoo is to be completed shortly by the French. Of it Electricity (New York, October 18) says:

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"It is going to be possible to wire messages from the interior or coast of Algiers to the very heart of the Sahara Desert. The telegraph line will stretch from the Mediterranean to Timbuctoo. It may not be known to the laity that a line from the Tuat Oases to the northern coast has been in operation for some time. The Tuat Oases, it may be said, were one of the stopping-places of those roving pirates whose outrages upon caravans were features of history from time immemorial.

"The French are just now selecting the route to the south of the Ahaggar Mountains, where the bandit Tuaregs live when at home. The Tuaregs are now quietly tending their herds, for the new

masters of the Sahara have made the plunder of caravans an unprofitable profession. According to reports, the telegraph will reach southwest to the region represented by the city of Timbuctoo, at which the pole line will end. The French believe the line-work, the pole-setting, and the testing will be completed before the winter months are on. Timbuctoo is a spot where no white man dared to appear in recent times. To live in this city an Arabic tongue, a devotion to Islam, and a stained skin were the possible preservatives of life. The glacial approach of civilization has made its presence felt, in the form of its best advance guard, the telegraph. Tourists may soon be sightseeing in a region once deemed almost inaccessible and doubly dangerous, through the science and enterprise of distant Europe."

THE

SURVEYING EXTRAORDINARY.

HE engineer in charge of the surveying work on the Simplon tunnel, Professor Rosenmund, of Zurich, is receiving congratulations on all sides, because of the success with which this work was carried out under unusual difficulties. It is evidently no easy task, under the most favorable conditions, to determine the position of a line that two tunnels are to pursue in order to meet under the summit of a mountain, and, in the case of the Simplon, conditions were the reverse of favorable. The task that confronted Professor Rosenmund and his staff, and the accuracy with which they accomplished it, are thus stated by a writer in Engineering (London, September 29):

Three factors had to be rigorously determined: the difference of level or the gradient between the two ends; the total length of the tunnel; and the azimuth, or the angle between the axis of the tunnel and a known direction. Of these three factors, the leveling presents the least difficulty, since the results depend upon direct measurement. When the junction was effected under the summit, actual measurement proved that the difference in level between the two partial tunnels was only o. 1 meter, or less than 4 inches.

'The length of the road which the borings follow under the mountain need not be determined with the same accuracy as the difference of level or the direction of the tunnel axis. As a matter of fact, the derived values of the length of the tunnel differed by as much as 0.8 meter; that is to say, the probable error of the length based upon the different computations amounted to some 32 inches. The most probable length of the tunnel was found to be 19,228.71 meters, and the actual length measured after completion differed from this quantity by 2 meters, or 1 part in 10,000.

"The most troublesome factor is undoubtedly the direction to be given to the tunnel axis, and here the greatest success was scored. It was found, when the opposite parties met in the center of the boring, that the opposing walls were in perfect alinement. No deviation from true continuity could be detected in one of the walls, while the critical examination of the opposite wall could not be made, owing to projecting rockwork interrupting the view along the advancing gallery."

The difficulties of the work that was thus accurately carried out were, as has been said above, of no common order. In the first place, we are told, the attraction of the mountain on the plumbline was of an unusual amount. Very considerable discrepancies were found in the eleven triangles which Professor Rosenmund had to construct, showing that the attraction of the mountain displaced the position of the plumb-line at some stations through an angle equal to 24 seconds of arc. Moreover, verification of the line pursued was rendered difficult by two circumstances, which are thus set forth by the writer:

The ventilation of the tunnel was very good, owing to the construction of the parallel tunnel. When we say that on one occasion a lamp in the tunnel at a distance of 5,600 meters [about 3% miles] from the observer was clearly seen with the naked eye, it will be sufficient proof of the freedom of the tunnel from dust and smoke. But this effective ventilation was attended by two drawbacks, which interfered with the accuracy of observation. The temperature of the fresh air entering through the subsidiary tunnel was gradually increased as it advanced, and the air was therefore capable of holding in suspension more and more moisture. So

long as the air retained its warmth it maintained its transparency, but on its return through the main tunnel, it was brought into contact with the cold stone walls, which were of a lower temperature; therefore the air growing colder deposited its moisture in the form of a cloud, which hung over the entrance and cooler parts of the tunnel, effectually obscuring the lamps and signals.

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A source of even greater annoyance and uncertainty was a kind of mirage' which displaced or distorted the sources of illumination. It seems to have been not uncommon for a lamp to give rise to, not one image, but two, in the field of the observing telescope. Not only did the observer not know which of the two images to observe, but the true position of the lamp probably corresponded with neither. These two images would be nearly vertical over each other, but the lower one might be displaced nearly 45 seconds, an angle which would imply an error of an altogether inadmissible quantity. The explanation of the phenomena of doubled lamp-images, or of the curving of straight lines of light, and similar vagaries, is probably the same as that offered in the case of the mirage' of the desert. When the heated air near the ground becomes of less density than that immediately above it,' an inversion of the ordinary conditions of refraction occurs. The recognition of this disturbing effect is important in all surveying and verification work where atmospheres of different temperatures and densities have to be encountered."

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At first transportation of passengers and freight was by horses and mule teams and was hot and tedious, and it would take many months to build a spur of the railroad to the mines. Meantime an enterprising man-Charles Christman-seeing an opportunity to make money, decided to start an automobile passenger service. So he ordered three Pope-Toledo cars with especially built bodies. These are now running from Tonopah, the nearest railroad point, to Bullfrog, a distance of 150 miles. They cross the desert land, most of which is smooth and hard, only about $3,000 having been expended in putting the entire road in good condition. There are, however, some very steep grades, and the temperature rises to 125°.

"The accompanying engraving shows one of the special machines, called by the builders a three-seated wagonette. It has a regular four-cylinder engine of 45 horse-power. . . A new idea in cooling has been employed. . . . The frame of the car is of

wood, reinforced with steel plates. The wheel-base is 114 inches, and three persons can be seated comfortably on each seat. The gasoline-tank has a capacity for thirty gallons of fuel, which is sufficient for a run of 450 miles."

ΤΗ

a new treatmENT FOR TUBERCULOSIS. HE discovery of a new method of treatment for tuberculosis by Professor Behring, the well-known German expert, is announced in the daily press, and has been widely commented upon. According to the telegraphic despatches, Professor Behring, to whom the world is already indebted for the discovery of diphtheria antitoxin, refuses to say more than that the principle of his new method of treatment differs from that of his serum cure for diphtheria. A Paris

a married man is more likely to commit suicide than either a single man or a married woman, while women who are single, either because widowed or divorced, or because they have never been anything else, seem to find life less attractive than similarly circumstanced men. Neither ill health nor alcohol is such a potent cause of suicide as business losses, and to the latter even absorbing sentiment such as is represented by a love-affair has to yield the palm. Since business plays so prominent a part in the production of suicide, it is comprehensible that Saturday should not be a popular day on which to ring down the curtain. Those who meditate this step have worried through the week, have received their pay, and have anyhow a day of rest before them. Monday-black Monday-is the day when those faced by business disaster or crushed by personal ill health seem least disposed to continue the struggle. On the other hand, Sunday is the day when, for women at any rate, domestic troubles prove most unbearable. As for the hour of greatest weakness, this is apparently from 9 to 12 in the evening."

THE PROBLEM OF LIFE.

(New York, October 7). reports Professor Behring as saying:

"The exact facts are that I have been studying for a long time a new method of treating tuberculosis and think I have broken fresh ground. There are certain animals which contract this malady with great facility and have hitherto proved refractory to all attempts at vaccination. I have finally succeeded in rendering them immune as regards the bacillus, and probably can even cure them when the disease is fully developed in them. Experiments on man have not yet been made, but there is ground for hope in this respect, the path I am following being totally different from those explored up to the present."

PROFESSOR BEHRING,

Who has announced the discovery of a new anti

tuberculosis serum.

As the comments based on this news have been largely inferential, owing to the paucity of data, a fuller announcement by Behring, which is promised, must be awaited before drawing conclusions. The matter has been complicated by the offer to Professor Behring, by a newspaper, of a large sum of money to reveal his secret, his very proper refusal to do so on the ground that his discovery is yet incomplete, and a resulting attack upon him for " setting a money value on human life." All this is most interesting and up-to-date, but it throws little light upon the scientific aspects of the question.

Sex in Suicide.-Some interesting conclusions have been drawn by Prof. W. B. Bailey, of Yale, from recent official statistics of suicide. These he sets forth in an article in The Medical News (New York), on which an editorial writer in The British Medical Journal (London) comments as follows:

"Dealing with the 29,344 cases of suicide officially recorded between 1897 and 1901 he finds that the male suicides outnumber those of the weaker sex' by seven to two, while as regards the age incidence of a morbid inclination toward felo de se the age period of 20 to 50 covers nearly two-thirds of all the cases. In the absence of any information as to the relative numbers of persons in the United States at the different age periods this statement is not very informing, but so far as it goes it would seem to indicate that under the lower age limit there are few to whom life seems unattractive, while after 50 a natural end looms so near that it is scarcely worth while to precipitate its arrival. Other results are more illuminating. It would appear that, other things being equal,

and very far from popular interest, is now treated daily in the papers, which have fallen into the habit of reporting almost all biological investigation as having a direct bearing upon it. This is regarded as unfortunate by American Medicine (New York, October 7), which asserts that the problem, after all, is of secondary practical importance. Of Burke's "radiobe," the interest in which the writer regards as an instance in point, he says:

"The incident must be classed with the host of other alleged instances of the generation of life from non-living materials. The scientific interest in these little bodies is probably due to the fact that their behavior is one more illustration of the growing number of instances in which phenomena supposed to be produced only by living protoplasm are found also in dead matter. They support the growing tendency to look upon all vital phenomena as reflex results of definite causes, and not as due to innate powers independent of the environment.

once.

"The creation of life also seems unduly to exercise unscientific writers in lay journals. There has been a persistent tendency to consider the artificial fertilization of ovums of low organisms as a creation of life. How and why such a false idea should have embedded itself in the public mind is one of those mysteries which no one can explain. Parthenogenesis, or the development of a female cell without a conjugation with a male cell, is a very common phenomenon in lower organisms, tho it is invariably followed by sexual reproduction sooner or later. Its cause is unknown, but it can be artificially checked by certain means such as changes of food or temperature, so that sexual reproduction becomes necessary at It was no doubt a great discovery that a partial parthenogenesis could be caused artificially by certain changes in environment or by chemicals which rejuvenate the cell in the same way as conjugation, yet it is strange that this should also be called a creation of life. There are now press reports that a botanist has discovered that the regeneration of seaweeds is due to the action of external forces, and has assumed that the similar phenomenon in animals, such as the regeneration of the amputated parts of lobsters, is also due to purely physical forces. This, too, has been enlarged into a statement that the life problem is being solved. If this tendency continues we must expect every biologic investigation to be heralded as a contribution to the one great overshadowing task of creating a living thing in the laboratory. There are problems vastly more important than the origin of life, and they must be solved first, anyhow. The present popular tendency merely blinds the public to the work really being done. It is right and proper that all scientific work should be popularly described, but such articles on the life problem are now entirely too yellow."

THE phenomena exhibited by frictional excitation of an electric-light bulb, described in our issue of September 30, under the title "The Body as a Source of Electric Light," seems to bear close relationship to the results of some investigations made by C. M. Broomall, who writes to us from Media, Pa. He says: "Altho these experiments were tried under all sorts of circumstances and in a great measure exhibited phenomena like those described in your article, there never appeared to be anything physiological concerned in the process. The writer always supposed the light to be in some way the result of the electrification of the residual gas in the tube. It would be interesting to know just how closely the phenomena concerned in the two sets of experiments are related."

The United States a Christian Nation," brings to bear a large mass of supporting evidence in favor of the affirmative view, tho admitting at the same time that "the Government as a legal organization is independent of all religions," and citing the specific prohibition by the Constitution of any "law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," which seems to make the United States a secular government. It was indeed so interpreted by two citizens of the United States of Hebrew race. Mordecai Noah, Consul at Tunis in the early part of the nineteenth century, and, at a later period, Oscar Strauss in Turkey, sought, each in his representative capacity, to obtain from the respective rulers of these countries certain considerations which were denied until the United States was declared by them, as its representatives, to be a nonChristian country. The nearest approach to a legal definition seems to be the utterance of the Supreme Court of the United States, quoted by Judge Brewer, in the case of Holy Trinity Church vs. United States, 143 U. S., 471. "That Court, after mentioning various circumstances, added: These and many other matters which might be noticed add a volume of unofficial declarations to the mass of organic utterances that this is a Christian nation.'"

secular in their organization, the principles of Christianity are uniformly recognized. By these and other evidences I claim to have shown that the calling of this republic a Christian nation is not a mere pretense, but a recognition of a historical, legal, and social truth."

The writer points out that the word "God" when used alone and in the singular number "generally refers to that Supreme Being spoken of in the Old and New Testaments and worshiped by Jew

and Christian," and in this sense the word is used in constitution, statute, and instrument. If it be urged that declarations in the name of God are not found in all the charters or in all the constitutions, the author declares that the expressions were often omitted because they were deemed unnecessary. More significance is to be attached to the fact that He

there are no contrary declarations.

says:

"In no charter or constitution is there anything to even suggest that any other than the Christian is the religion of this country. In none of them is Mohammed or Confucius or Buddha in any manner noticed. In none of them is Judaism recognized other than by way of toleration of its special creed. While the separation of Church and State is often affirmed, there is nowhere a repudiation of Christianity as one of the institutions as well as benedictions of society. In short, there is no charter or constitution that is either infidel, agnostic, or anti-Christian. Wherever there is a declaration in favor of any religion it is of the Christian. In view of the multitude of expressions in its favor, the avowed separation between Church and State is a most satisfactory testimonial that it is the religion of this country, for a peculiar thought of Christianity is of a personal relation between man and his Maker, uncontrolled by and independent of human government."

Some of these "unofficial declarations" and other ancillary facts which lend support to his contention are cited by the Associate Justice, who buttresses his citations with the following general statements:

"I pointed out that Christianity was a primary cause of the first settlement on our shores; that the organic instruments, charters, and constitutions of the colonies were filled with abundant recognitions of it as a controlling factor in the life of the people; that in one at least of them it was in terms declared the established religion* while in several the furthering of Christianity was stated to be one of the purposes of the Government; in many, faith in it was a condition of holding office; in some, authority was given to the Legislature to make its support a public charge; in nearly all the constitutions there has been an express recognition of the sanctity of the Christian Sunday; the God of the Bible is appealed to again and again.

Sunday laws have been enacted and enforced in most of the colonies and States. About one-third of the population are avowedly Christian and communicants of some Christian organization; there are sitting accommodations in the churches for nearly two-thirds; educational institutions are largely under the control of Christian denominations, and even in those which, in obedience to the rule of separation between Church and State, are

* In the Constitution of South Carolina of 1778 it was declared that "the Chris. tian Protestant religion should be deemed and is hereby constituted and declared to be the established religion of this State." And further, that no agreement or union of men upon pretense of religion should be entitled to become incorporated and regarded as a Church of the established religion of the State, without agreeing and subscribing to a book of five articles, the third and fourth of which were 'that the Christian religion is the true religion; that the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament are of divine inspiration, and are the rule of faith and practise.'

THE

THE REAL ST. PATRICK.

HERE have been writers who have denied the existence of such a figure as St. Patrick, and others who have considered the work attributed to him to be the composite of four or five different evangelists. Forty years ago a professor of Trinity College, Dublin, wrote a life of St. Patrick, "but as he made him out a Protestant," says the London Tablet (Rom. Cath.), "Irishmen were either too indignant or too much amused to pay to the learned author's work that attention which it deserved." The many legends and speculations which have hitherto clustered about this personality seem at last to be reduced to their intrinsic values and out of them emerges a real figure, who accomplished a definite and valuable work. This clearing-up has been done by J. B. Bury, the recently elected regius professor of history at Cambridge, in his life of the Saint. St. Patrick is claimed by the present writer not to have introduced Christianity into Ireland, but to have organized the Christianity which already existed; to have converted the kingdoms which were still pagan, especially in the West, and, what is the most important of his accomplishments, historically considered, to have brought Ireland into connection with the Church of the Empire, and made it formally part of universal Christendom. The real historical Patrick is found to be a vastly different figure, says Dr. Bury, from the one "gradually transformed into a typical Irish saint, dear to popular imagination, who curses men and even inanimate things which incur his displeasure." How the apocryphal character came to take the place of the real one is thus indicated:

"The accounts of his acts were not written from any historical

interest, but simply for edification; and the monks, who dramatized both actual and legendary incidents, were not concerned to regard, even if they had known, what manner of man he really was, but were guided by their knowledge of what popular taste demanded. The medieval hagiographer may be compared to the modern novelist; he provided literary recreation for the public, and he had to consider the public taste. In regard to the process by which Patrick was Hibernicized, or adapted to an Irish ideal, it is significant that the earliest literature relating to his life seems to have been written in Irish. This literature must have been current in the sixth century, and on it the earliest Latin records are based."

In place of the capricious figure of monkish fiction, the real Patrick holds an important place in the history of Europe as a propagator of the Roman idea before that idea had established itself in Britain. We read :

4

"Judged by what he actually compassed, he must be placed among the most efficient of those who took part in spreading the Christian faith beyond the boundaries of the Roman Empire. He was endowed in abundant measure with the quality of enthusiasm, and stands in quite a different rank from the apostle of England, in whom this victorious energy of enthusiasm was lacking, Augustine, the messenger and instrument of Gregory the Great. Patrick was no mere messenger or instrument. He had a strong personality and the power of initiative; he depended on himself, or, as he would have said, on divine guidance. He was not in constant communication with Xystus or Leo, or any superior; he was thrown upon the resources of his own judgment. Yet no less than Augustine, no less than Boniface, he was the bearer of the Roman idea. But we must remember that it was the Roman idea of days when the Church was still closely bound up in the Empire, and owed her high prestige to the older institution which had served as the model for her external organization. The Pope had not yet become a spiritual Cæsar Augustus, as he is at the present day. In the universal order, he was still for generations to be overshadowed by the Emperor. The Roman idea at this stage meant not the idea of subjection to the Roman See, but of Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire. It was as impossible for Patrick, as it was impossible for the High King of Ireland, to divorce the idea of the Church from the idea of the Empire. Christianity was marked off from all other religions as the religion of the Romans in the wider political sense of that imperial name. If Christianity aspired in theory to be ecumenical, Rome had aspired in theory to realize universal sway before Christianity appeared. . . . That aspiration was destined to be fulfilled more completely in another sense after her political decline. The dismemberment of the Empire and the upgrowth of the German kingdoms brought about an evolution which enabled the elder Rome to reassert her influence in a new way and a new order. But it was the same idea at different stages of developIment, which was borne by Patrick, by Augustine, by Boniface, and by Otto."

The historical importance of the bond established by St. Patrick, marking an epoch in the history of Ireland as a European country, has been obscured, the author points out, by the fact that after Patrick's death the Irish Church "went a way of its own and developed

on

eccentric lines." Its relations with the head of the Church were suspended partly through the workings of the Irish instinct of tribal independence and partly through its fondness for monasticism, which promoted individualism and disorganization. During the seventh century, however, when Gregory "accomplished his great revival and augmentation of the authority of the Roman See in Western lands, the Irish Church returned to the episcopal organization founded by St. Patrick." In carrying out his policy of establishing the Roman idea, St. Patrick, tho more or less an illiterate man himself, insisted on the use of Latin as the ecclesiastical language. The effect of his act is shown by

means of an interesting comparison with the effect of the work of evangelists among Eastern tribes:

"St. Patrick did not do for the Scots what Wulfilas did for the Goths, and the Slavonic apostles for the Slavs; he did not translate the sacred books of his religion into Irish or found a national Church literature. It is upon their literary achievements, more than on their successes in converting barbarians, that the fame of Wulfilas rests, and the fame of Cyril. The Gothic Bible of Wulfilas was available for the Vandals and other Germans whose speech was closely akin to Gothic. The importance of the Slavonic apostles, Cyril and his brother Methodius, is due to the fact that the literature which they initiated was available, not for the lands in which they labored-Moravia and Pannonia, which no longer knew them-but for Bulgaria and Russia. What Patrick, on the other hand, and his foreign fellow-workers did was to diffuse a knowledge of Latin in Ireland. To the circumstances that he adopted this line of policy, and did not attempt to create a national ecclesiastical language, must be ascribed the rise of the schools of learning which distinguished Ireland in the sixth and seventh centuries. From a national point of view this policy may be criticized; from a theologian's point of view the advantage may be urged of opening to the native clergy the whole body of patristic literature, and saving the trouble of translation and the chances of error. But the point is that the policy was entirely consonant with the development of Western, as contrasted with Eastern, Christianity... Latin had become the universal language, not a mere lingua franca, in the Western provinces, a fact which conditioned the whole growth of Western Christendom. . . . And this community of language powerfully conduced to the realization of the unitas ecclesia. . . . If Patrick had called into being for the Scots a sacred literature such as Cyril initiated for the Slavs, we may be sure that the tendencies in the Irish Church to strike out paths of development for itself, which were so strongly marked in the sixth century, would have been more effective and permanent in promoting isolation and aloofness, and that the successful movement of the following century which drew Ireland back into outward harmony and more active communion with the Western Church would have been beset with far greater difficulties and might have been a failure."

Castellane, the standpoint of the Church and the aristocracy, the same action spells not liberty, but anarchy. These two diametrically opposed points of view are concisely stated for American readers, by the prominent Frenchmen named above, in The Cosmopol itan (New York) for November. "When you ask us why we wish to separate the Church from the State," writes Senator Clémenceau, "it is enough if we reply to you,' In order to be free like you - completely free in every sense of the feeling and the thought."" The Roman Catholic Church he describes as the greatest establishment for universal domination that man has been able to conceive and to realize." Further, "it is a Church of authority, whereas the Protestant Church sprang from the protests of liberty." He contrasts the Catholic organization of Rome, "a pure theocracy," with the Protestant organization, which he describes as "an anthropocracy." 'God governs man by priests in the one case; while in the other man governs himself at his own risk and peril in this world and the next." The ideal of the Catholic

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