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MODIFYING THE "FOURTEEN POINTS

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GENERAL AGREEMENT between the Government at Washington and the leaders of the Allies regarding the famous "Fourteen Points" seems at last to have been reached. Unlike the Germans, who swallowed-or profest to swallow-the Fourteen Points with a bolt, the Allies have found it necessary to "reserve to themselves complete freedom" on one of them and to give much clearer definition to another. They thus virtually reject the point which deals with the "freedom of the seas," and it was this point that the London Saturday Review had in mind particularly when it described the President's points as being "too vague to be quite intelligible." The Congress of the Allies at Versailles have redefined another of the President's points thus:

"The President declared that invaded territories must be restored as well as evacuated and freed. The Allied governments feel that no doubt ought to be allowed to exist as to what this provision implies. By it they understand that compensation would be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany by land, by sea, and from the air."

This Allied emphasis on the reparation to be exacted from Germany follows a very general demand somewhat insistently urged by all classes of opinion both in France and England, where there is a tendency to refuse to recognize the President's distinction between the German Government and the German people. For example, the influential Paris L'Action Française remarks:

"We can not accept a distinction between the various forms of German government. We might conceive of privileges accorded certain German states provided they agree to break away from Prussia, but we will pay no premium to a democratic Germany at the expense of our own interests and future security, Not eighteen months ago, like the United States, but a thousand years ago, France exposed the German aggressions."

Allied opinion seems to hold that individual Germans who have committed the acts of devastation and rapine are as guilty as the Government which instigated or tolerated them. Mr. Stephen Pichon, the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, has told the French Senate that the Government is determined to

fix the individual responsibility for each German outrage, and he is reported by the Paris Journal des Débats as saying:

"The atrocities committed shall have other punishments than that of the moral reprobation passed by the world's conscience. We, with our allies, will take care to see that exact justice shall be executed, so that any possible repetition of such monstrosities will have vanished forever from a reconstituted world."

In the English press there has been for a considerable period no little condemnation of President Wilson's doctrine of "the freedom of the seas," a point which the London Globe roundly avers is positively detrimental to British interests. The Globe protests that support of President Wilson is not a test of British political orthodoxy, and proceeds:

"It has apparently been represented as our duty to strengthen the details of his policy, which has been declared the same as those of Great Britain, France, and Italy. We do not know how the delusion has arisen. There may be inspired or semiofficial propaganda behind the backs of the British people of which they are ignorant and innocent.

"When prest for an explanation, Americans refer to some stray sentence or some extempore effort of Lloyd George during his visit to American troops in France, of which reports vary. In any case we feel sure the British Prime Minister never contemplated committing himself so far, nor had he any authority to do so, as among the fourteen points is the 'freedom of the seas.'

"This phrase is understood by its advocates as signifying that the British Empire, which owes its existence to the sea and which has just saved the liberties of the world by its sea power, is to renounce its birthright and surrender the one effective weapon at the very moment when all British people, and many people who are not British, unite in acknowledging that without such sea-power we and they would have been doomed in 1914.

"Germany must have won the war had the freedom-of-theseas school, which embraced conspicuous members of the Potsdam party, carried the day the time they tried to force peace upon us by the ghastly and grotesque Declaration of London.

"To-day, apart from a handful of cranks and apostles, this heresy in this country has been reduced to total silence. If we hold a general election no candidate will be returned on this platform. . . .

"Americans in Europe, who are infinitely more numerous than ever before, smile at the suggestion that Great Britain should be invited to commit national suicide at this moment of all others. They generously inquire: 'Where would the United States be in 1918 but for the British Navy?""

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FRENCH RAILROADS AND AMERICAN ENGINEERS

MERICAN RAILROAD MEN who are using French railroads and their equipment found a good deal of trouble, at first, in adjusting themselves. French tracks, cars, locomotives, and operating methods were all strange to them, and in particular they could not understand the French custom of getting along with a thing that is good enough, even if something vastly better has been devised and is available. Americans like to be up to date, even if it involves what the French would call waste. How our men feel about it is shown in a letter from a practical railway man printed in The Railway Review (Chicago, October 19). Much of it is too technical to quote, but most readers of THE DIGEST can understand and appreciate the few paragraphs that we quote and condense as follows:

"The French equipment was quite a 'come-down' from what they were used to back in the States. To come over here and to climb upon one of these French locomotives was enough almost to break some of them. The majority of French locomotives, and especially the ones in yard service, are not equipped with airbrakes, having only a hand-brake, and that connected to only one pair of drivers; if the locomotive is equipped with a tender, the brakes are then on the tender instead of the drivers. The reversing gear is of the screw type. The throttle levers are of all types, and not connected in the same place on any two locomotives.

"After the first of the year I was called to my regiment and sent out to this place for duty with them. The work was soon too heavy for one locomotive, and we had to make arrangements for another one.

"This new addition arrived a few days after I did, and it surely was a sight to look at-hardly larger than a push car, and resembled a watch-charm more than it did a locomotive. It was entirely too small for the work it was to do; but it was the best we could get just at that time, so we had to make it do. The French equipment, as I have stated before, is not what our men have been used to. In doing switching, the switchman has to crawl under the bumpers and unhook the link from the hook, and then kick the cars. As the wagons (this is the name the French have for cars) have no brakes, handholds, or ladders on which to hold or stop a car with, they have what is called a 'shoe' to do the stopping with. As a car or cut of cars comes down the

hump a shoe is placed on the rail a short distance from where they want the car to stop. As the wheels of the car strike this shoe, they are locked and the car skids to a stop. How would such a method as this work out in the States? Not a success, I should say, and the French have found out the same thing. When the United States cars began to arrive, the French tried this system on them. They stopt all right, but also succeeded in tying up the yards for about twelve hours.

"The whistles are all very small and have a shrill sound. To hear one of these French hoggers calling for the block or board, one would think that he was in some kind of trouble. An American hogger would certainly be pinched if he should try to pull off some of the musical serenades in the States that these fellows do.

"All of the locomotive cabs over here are very small, and have hardly any room in them, while other engines have practically no cab at all, only a deck plate and a windshield. The French don't seem to believe in the idea of their engine crews sitting down, as there are no seats of any kind in the cabs of their locomotives, tho they have a few ten-wheelers of the American type built in 1900 by the Baldwin Locomotive Works."

In editorial comment on this letter, The Railway Review calls attention to the fact that the ancient type of some of the French railway equipment, of which the writer complains, is due to the French policy of keeping a mechanical plant in working condition as long as possible, instead of replacing it, as we do, as soon as it is out of date. The French are rather proud of their ability in this direction and would regard the fact that so much of their old railway equipment is still doing good work as a point in its favor. This, it need not be said, is not believed by Americans to be good policy. Says the editor:

"Obviously the extreme care devoted by the French in selecting and working the materials entering into the building and maintenance of locomotives is conducive to longevity, but that of itself is not a thing to be aspired to with too much zeal. Possibly American policies and practises have unnecessarily shortened the life of some of our equipment, but even if they have, we believe it is a fair question as to whether or not that result, after all, is not to be preferred to the prolongation, through painful years, of the life of cars and locomotives that should more properly be given place in a museum than out on

the line in active service. Emphasis to this thought comes from reflection as to what would be the degree of usefulness of any American locomotive of the Civil War period had it been maintained in such shape as to be in operating condition to-day. French locomotives of a corresponding age, apparently, are very common, but notwithstanding the admirable workmanship that has been expended on them in all these years, very serious doubt as to their utility can be raised.

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"The letter portrays a condition to be endured only through the utmost necessity, which doubtless prevailed at that time, and in all probability still holds in many parts of the fighting To apply the circumstances to our own conditions, however, immediately vindicates the policy that American railroads have been following in having no hesitation in discarding the old for that which is new and obviously better. The Railroad Administration pursues a most commendable policy when it effects a classification, of freight-car equipment on a basis that will very soon relegate the inadequate to the discard and bring that which justifies the expense to a condition capable of fulfilling modern transportation requirements. The same is true with respect to locomotives wherein a pretty definite line is drawn between those that have outlived their usefulness and those that are seen to be worthy of the expense of modernization. This principle, to be sure, is not new, but it has not been as uniformly and generally acted upon as we may well hope to see in consequence of the precedent which the Administration has 'established."

W

THE DEADLY FEMALE

HEN KIPLING wrote his famous lines asserting that "the female of the species must be deadlier than the male," he was eugenically correct, we are told by Dr. O. C. Glaser, professor of zoology in the University of Michigan. In the department of eugenics which he conducts in Good Health (Battle Creek, October), Professor Glaser describes the results of genealogical studies made recently by Major Charles B. Davenport, which, he says, indicate very clearly that efficiency in fighting is far more likely to be passed along the maternal than the paternal line of the family. The genius of Cæsar, the career of Napoleon, the brutality of Nero, are all traceable to maternal inheritance. "We are now quite safe in predicting some bloodthirsty sons," says Dr. Glaser, "when the gentle daughter of a pirate marries a Philadelphia Quaker." He goes on:

"Major Davenport's study is largely based on the family histories of thirty officers, of whom fourteen were primarily fighters, the rest explorers, inventors, diplomats, and administrators. His purpose was to find, if possible, some scientific basis for the selection of men likely to be successful-more likely than if chosen at random-in any tasks that it might become necessary to assign to them.

"Briefly, the outcome was that coolness under fire, bravery, spirit, and actual fighting capacity all come principally from the maternal side. The daughter of a first-class fighting man is more likely to have a first-class fighting son than her own father, and her own brothers rarely make names for themselves unless perchance their mother bequeaths the necessary Wanderlust and love of adventure-essential elements in the fighting make-up. "What other traits follow the same rules of inheritance? Color blindness is one; night blindness, a condition in which the victim can not see by the mild diffuse light of the night, and hence, as the song puts it, is afraid to go home in the dark; bleeding the defect in which the blood lacks the machinery necessary for clotting; baldness-the virulent type; and nearsightedness, are all traits which follow the law of sex-linked inheritance.

"The essentials needed to synthetize a naval fighter are: "1. Love of the sea.

"2. The wandering impulse; love of adventure. "3. Energy; love of activity; push.

"4. Absence of fear.

"5. Ability to command men.

"Of these, absence of fear should perhaps be placed first. It has been, naturally, a marked characteristic of all the great fighting leaders, and not infrequently has manifested itself early in life. At the age of six Admiral Perkins was tied in a sleigh and sent twenty miles in an emergency; at ten, Maffit traveled alone in stage coaches from North Carolina to White Plains,

New York; at ten, likewise, Admiral Winslow went to sea in a skiff with a young cedar for mast and sail. He was picked up by an incoming vessel and thoroughly enjoyed the cruise. At the mouth of the Mississippi, Farragut 'damned' the torpedoes, and at Manila, Dewey's calm was quite unruffled when he ordered: 'You may fire when ready, Gridley.'

"That the immediate maternal inheritance is chiefly responsible for all this is shown not only by the family records of those referred to, but also by genealogical investigation of the families of Bainbridge, who commanded the Constitution when she captured the British frigate, Java, in the War of 1812; of Barney, who in revolutionary times took the sloop General Monk; of Cushing, who blew up the ironclad Albemarle; of Paul Jones, certainly one of the greatest of all naval heroes; of Porter and of Lawrence.

"Energy, aggressiveness, an eager desire to get things done, characterize leaders of all kinds, industrial, administrative, professional, and artistic. The naval leader, however, has in addition to these an instinct to wander, and the biographers have much to say about the early search of their heroes for changes of scene and for adventure. The future commander is apt to 'run away' or to 'go to sea' in his teens. Such Wanderlust is most clearly of all the traits that go to make up naval leaders a sexlinked inheritance of maternal origin.

"The point to be kept in mind in dealing with inheritance of this type is the fact that the mothers of fighting men are themselves placid enough and give no outward signs of the qualities which, bequeathed to their sons, break out in startling and often ingenious deviltry. The same thing is true of the other sexlinked characteristics. The female, unless in rare cases she receives a double dose one from each side of the house-is merely a carrier of the elements in question. A single dose of these same units, however, will convert any one of her sons into a fire-eater from Hades.

"Kipling was entirely correct. You can not tell what lies hidden beneath the placid exterior of the female. You must wait until the savagery of her sons becomes manifest. This, alas! still has certain racial advantages, but we are obliged to go Kipling one better. In order to insure racial preservation, the female not only must be deadlier than the male; she actually is deadlier, because you can not tell how deadly she is. The harmlessness of a camouflaged fighter of the first magnitude is only skin deep."

T

AN ALL-STRAPHANGER CAR

HE STRAPHANGERS, we are told, pay the dividends. This being the case, why not increase the dividends by abolishing seats altogether, making room for more straphangers? In sober fact, a "seatless car" is at this very moment being tried out in Rome, Italy, or so we are somewhat incredibly informed by an editorial writer in The Electric Railway Journal (New York, August 17). It has been seriously considered also in New York, we are assured; but the transportation authorities have been a little shy, possibly because, on general principles, Americans are regarded as less lamblike than modern Romans. The plan would "relieve congestion," we are told; possibly for the same reason that the sardine in the box does not feel congested he doesn't have space for any feelings at all. Says the paper just named:

"Inquiry among transportation engineers develops the fact that the idea is not entirely novel and that it has had some serious consideration in New York City during the period just prior to the present war. The idea was abandoned largely because of the fear that the public and the regulating commissions would not take kindly to any suggestion which would be so directly opposed to the 'seat for every fare' slogan.

"The shortage in man-power has crippled the railways so much that any plan to increase the carrying capacity of city cars, especially during the rush hours, deserves consideration. A simple computation shows that the average 45-foot cross-seat surface-car will seat about forty-eight people and carry about thirty-three standees comfortably, giving a total of eighty-one passengers. However, with the car thus filled the average speed is reduced greatly, due to delays in loading and unloading. The same car with all seats removed would carry a hundred people all standing, if an average of 24 square feet of space be allowed for each person, and they would not be crowded as closely as the eighty-one people were in the car having seats."

T

THE SOLE TEST OF SANITY

HE SOLE DIFFERENCE between a sane and an insane man is that the former retains the power of adapting himself to his circumstances, while the latter has lost it. This is the definition of a contributor to The Hospital (London, September 14), who writes under the title that appears above. So long, he assures us, as we are able to alter our actions to suit any change in ourselves or our environment, so long we are mentally normal. We effect such alteration either by changing our circumstances, as when we put on more clothes in cold weather, or by changing our own actions, as when we go around a hole to avoid falling in. The madman fails to make adjustments of this kind, and he does not recognize such failure as an error, but persists in it. Here, the writer tells us, is where the boundary lies between mistake and madness. Insanity might be defined as permanent error. We read:

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man's circumstances change in such a manner as to affect his welfare, he will, as long as he is sane, alter his action so as to adapt himself to the change. If the weather becomes cold, he will light a fire, or put on more clothing, or both; and vice versa if the weather turns hot. If his income increases or diminishes, he will increase or diminish his expenditure accordingly. If a new law that affects him is passed, he will alter his conduct so as to conform to it. As his children arrive at an educable age, he will take measures for their education.

"Normal action is such as to adjust the relation between the self and the circumstances, either by altering the circumstances, as when we put on more clothes in cold weather; or by altering ourselves, as when we learn a new language on going to a new country; or by altering our action, as when we stop at home and go to bed instead of going to business when we find ourselves suffering from fever. The relation between the self and the circumstances is thrown out of adjustment whenever there is a change in the self or a change in the circumstances, or a change in the relation of the one to the other, and every such change in the relation must be met by a readjustment. . . . Action which brings about or maintains the due adjustment of the relation between self and circumstance is sane action, and sanity consists in action of this kind. Action which disturbs the relation between self and circumstances and throws them out of adjustment is erroneous action, and may be merely sane mistake or may be mad action.

"There is, therefore, a certain similarity between error and madness. All mad action is erroneous, but erroneous action is not necessarily mad, and it is very important to find the true distinction between them, for in practise they are often confused. The distinction is this: a sane person who does a mistaken act recognizes, by the, failure of the act to achieve his purpose, that the action is mistaken, and alters his mode of action accordingly. At the least he refrains from pursuing that mode of action as soon as it appears manifest that it will not achieve his purpose. The madman who does a mad act does that which is mistakenthat which will not achieve his ultimate purpose, that which fails to adjust or readjust himself to his circumstances or his circumstances to himself and his requirements. But when his action fails to achieve his purpose he does not change it. He persists in it. . . . This is the important difference between sane mistake and madness. The one can be corrected by the

writes a letter to The American City (New York, October), telling how the thing is done in his own town. In the old days, New England towns simply floundered about in the snow until the ordinary traffic had packed it down. Laconia's use of a powerful roller simply hastens and systematizes the hardening process. Evidently the plan is not adapted to streets where there are trolley-tracks or to climates where the snow is soft or begins to thaw soon after it falls. Writes Mr. French:

"Because of the heavy falls of snow which occur in this climate, and the necessity of keeping our roads open for travel, Laconia has designed a snow-roller which serves the purpose admirably. "These rollers consist of two cylindrical wooden drums, 6 feet 4 inches in diameter and 5 feet in length, mounted on an oak frame and surmounted by seats and tool-box as shown in the photograph...

"These rollers, which have been used by our department for several years with good success, have an effective snow-compacting width of about twelve feet. They are used mostly for breaking country roads and are sent out when there is a snowfall of four inches, or even less when it has drifted.

"One man drives the four or six horses, and other men are carried on the roller and sent ahead to shovel when drifts are encountered. The shovelers also level sliding places and chuck-holes, and when the roller passes over it compacts the snow so that it will hold a team, and the road needs no more attention until the next storm. .

"In the spring, when the snow begins to thaw, some of the deeper drifts have to be cut out with a road-machine, which we mount on runners. It is surprizing to see how much is saved in hand-labor by this method.

"In the city, after the sidewalks have been cleared by the sidewalk plows, the ridge left at the edge of the sidewalk is spread over the street by means of the road-machine mounted on runners, and then rolled by the snow-roller. In cold weather we are able to use four-ton motor-trucks on these rolled snow-roads, but not when the snow is deep during a thaw. They are also much appreciated by the farmers and lumbermen, who find it much easier to haul larger loads on the firm, hard road left in the wake of the snow-rollers."

the line in active service. Emphasis to this thought comes from reflection as to what would be the degree of usefulness of any American locomotive of the Civil War period had it been maintained in such shape as to be in operating condition to-day. French locomotives of a corresponding age, apparently, are very common, but notwithstanding the admirable workmanship that has been expended on them in all these years, very serious doubt as to their utility can be raised.

"The letter portrays a condition to be endured only through the utmost necessity, which doubtless prevailed at that time, and in all probability still holds in many parts of the fighting area. To apply the circumstances to our own conditions, however, immediately vindicates the policy that American railroads have been following in having no hesitation in discarding the old for that which is new and obviously better. The Railroad Administration pursues a most commendable policy when it effects a classification, of freight-car equipment on a basis that will very soon relegate the inadequate to the discard and bring that which justifies the expense to a condition capable of fulfilling modern transportation requirements. The same is true with respect to locomotives wherein a pretty definite line is drawn between those that have outlived their usefulness and those that are seen to be worthy of the expense of modernization. This principle, to be sure, is not new, but it has not been as uniformly and generally acted upon as we may well hope to see in consequence of the precedent which the Administration has established."

W

THE DEADLY FEMALE

HEN KIPLING wrote his famous lines asserting that "the female of the species must be deadlier than the male," he was eugenically correct, we are told by Dr. O. C. Glaser, professor of zoology in the University of Michigan. In the department of eugenics which he conducts in Good Health (Battle Creek, October), Professor Glaser describes the results of genealogical studies made recently by Major Charles B. Davenport, which, he says, indicate very clearly that efficiency in fighting is far more likely to be passed along the maternal than the paternal line of the family. The genius of Cæsar. the career of Napoleon, the brutality of Nero, are all traceable to maternal inheritance. "We are now quite safe in predicting some bloodthirsty sons," says Dr. Glaser, "when the gentle daughter of a pirate marries a Philadelphia Quaker." He goes on:

"Major Davenport's study is largely based on the family histories of thirty officers, of whom fourteen were primarily fighters, the rest explorers, inventors, diplomats, and administrators. His purpose was to find, if possible, some scientific basis for the selection of men likely to be successful-more likely than if chosen at random-in any tasks that it might become necessary to assign to them.

"Briefly, the outcome was that coolness under fire, bravery, spirit, and actual fighting capacity all come principally from the maternal side. The daughter of a first-class fighting man is more likely to have a first-class fighting son than her own father, and her own brothers rarely make names for themselves unless perchance their mother bequeaths the necessary Wanderlust and love of adventure-essential elements in the fighting make-up. "What other traits follow the same rules of inheritance? Color blindness is one; night blindness, a condition in which the victim can not see by the mild diffuse light of the night, and hence, as the song puts it, is afraid to go home in the dark; bleeding the defect in which the blood lacks the machinery necessary for clotting; baldness-the virulent type; and nearsightedness, are all traits which follow the law of sex-linked inheritance.

"The essentials needed to synthetize a naval fighter are: "1. Love of the sea.

"2. The wandering impulse; love of adventure. "3. Energy; love of activity; push.

"4. Absence of fear.

"5. Ability to command men.

"Of these, absence of fear should perhaps be placed first. It has been, naturally, a marked characteristic of all the great fighting leaders, and not infrequently has manifested itself early At the age of six Admiral Perkins was tied in a sleigh in life. and sent twenty miles in an emergency; at ten, Maffit traveled alone in stage coaches from North Carolina to White Plains,

New York; at ten, likewise, Admiral Winslow went to sea in a skiff with a young cedar for mast and sail. He was picked up by an incoming vessel and thoroughly enjoyed the cruise. At the mouth of the Mississippi, Farragut 'damned' the torpedoes, and at Manila, Dewey's calm was quite unruffled when he ordered: 'You may fire when ready, Gridley.'

"That the immediate maternal inheritance is chiefly responsible for all this is shown not only by the family records of those referred to, but also by genealogical investigation of the families of Bainbridge, who commanded the Constitution when she captured the British frigate, Java, in the War of 1812; of Barney, who in revolutionary times took the sloop General Monk; of Cushing, who blew up the ironclad Albemarle; of Paul Jones, certainly one of the greatest of all naval heroes; of Porter and of Lawrence.

"Energy, aggressiveness, an eager desire to get things done, characterize leaders of all kinds, industrial, administrative, professional, and artistic. The naval leader, however, has in addition to these an instinct to wander, and the biographers have much to say about the early search of their heroes for changes of scene and for adventure. The future commander is apt to 'run away' or to go to sea' in his teens. Such Wanderlust is most clearly of all the traits that go to make up naval leaders a sexlinked inheritance of maternal origin.

"The point to be kept in mind in dealing with inheritance of this type is the fact that the mothers of fighting men are themselves placid enough and give no outward signs of the qualities which, bequeathed to their sons, break out in startling and often ingenious deviltry. The same thing is true of the other sexlinked characteristics. The female, unless in rare cases she receives a double dose-one from each side of the house-is merely a carrier of the elements in question. A single dose of these same units, however, will convert any one of her sons into a fire-eater from Hades.

"Kipling was entirely correct. You can not tell what lies hidden beneath the placid exterior of the female. You must wait until the savagery of her sons becomes manifest. This, alas! still has certain racial advantages, but we are obliged to go Kipling one better. In order to insure racial preservation, the female not only must be deadlier than the male; she actually is deadlier, because you can not tell how deadly she is. The harmlessness of a camouflaged fighter of the first magnitude is only skin deep."

T

AN ALL-STRAPHANGER CAR

HE STRAPHANGERS, we are told, pay the dividends. This being the case, why not increase the dividends by abolishing seats altogether, making room for more straphangers? In sober fact, a "seatless car" is at this very moment being tried out in Rome, Italy, or so we are somewhat incredibly informed by an editorial writer in The Electric Railway Journal (New York, August 17). It has been seriously considered also in New York, we are assured; but the transportation authorities have been a little shy, possibly because, on general principles, Americans are regarded as less lamblike than modern Romans. The plan would "relieve congestion," we are told; possibly for the same reason that the sardine in the box does not feel congested-he doesn't have space for any feelings at all. Says the paper just named:

"Inquiry among transportation engineers develops the fact that the idea is not entirely novel and that it has had some serious consideration in New York City during the period just prior to the present war. The idea was abandoned largely because of the fear that the public and the regulating commis sions would not take kindly to any suggestion which would be so directly opposed to the 'seat for every fare' slogan.

"The shortage in man-power has crippled the railways so much that any plan to increase the carrying capacity of city cars, especially during the rush hours, deserves consideration. A simple computation shows that the average 45-foot cross-seat surface-car will seat about forty-eight people and carry about thirty-three standees comfortably, giving a total of eighty-one passengers. However, with the car thus filled the average speed is reduced greatly, due to delays in loading and unloading. The same car with all seats removed would carry a hundred people all standing, if an average of 24 square feet of space be allowed for each person, and they would not be crowded as closely as the eighty-one people were in the car having seats."

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